Evaluation
• Process that can justify that what we do as nurses and as a nurse educators make a value-added difference in the care we provide
• It is a systematic process by which the worth or value of something- in this case, teaching and learning – is judged
• It is the final component of the process and serve as the critical bridge at the end of one cycle that guides direction of the next cycle
• As an after thought is, at best, a poor idea and, at worst, a dangerous one
DETERMINING THE FOCUS OF EVALUATION
Evaluation focus on five basic components:
• AUDIENCE- comprises the person or groups for whom the evaluation is being conducted
• PURPOSE- to decide whether to continue a particular education program or to determine the effectiveness of the teaching process
• QUESTION- to be asked in the evaluation are directly related to the purpose for conducting the evaluation, are specific and are measurable
• SCOPE- can be considered an answer to the question
• RESOURCES- include time, expertise, personnel, materials, equipment, and facilities
EVALUATION MODELS
• PROCESS ( FORMATIVE) EVALUATION
its purpose is to make adjustments in an educational activity as soon as they are needed, whether those adjustments be in personnel, materials, facilities, learning objectives or even ones attitude . This is ongoing evaluation helps the nurse anticipate and prevent problems as they arise.
o CONTENT EVALUATION
The purpose is to determine whether learners have acquired the knowledge or skills taught during the learning experience. Take place immediately after the learning experience.
o OUTCOME (SUMMATIVE) EVALUATION
Is to determine the effects or outcomes of teaching efforts, it also referred to as SUMMATIVE EVALUATION because its meant is to sum what happened as a result of education. It measures changes occurring as a result of teaching and learning. Focus on measuring more long term change that persists after the learning experience.
o IMPACT EVALUATION
The purpose is to obtain information that will help decide whether continuing an educational activity is worth cost. Focus on a course of goal.
o PROGRAM EVALUATION
The purpose is to determine the extent to which all activity for an entire department or program over specified of time meet or exceed goals originally established. The scope of program is broad, generally focusing on overall goals rather on specific objectives.
Evaluation of learning book from teaching strategies
Tests- an art as well as a science and cannot be fully taught in a single chapter
- may consist of a single type of question or a combinations of types, as long as the objectives are being measured at the desired levels of learning
TYPES OF TESST QUESTION
Multiple Choice QUESTIONS
- nursing examination are often written in this types of question for such reasons of
1. challenging to create
2. easy to score and can be scored by the computer
3. NLE are multiple choice therefore educator wants the learner to be familiar in this type of questions
Two parts of multiple choice question
1. STEM – the question itself
- should be short as possible while still conveying the ideas clearly
- Negative terms should be avoided because it tends to make questions more confusing
2. OPTIONS/ DISTRACTERS - the possible answer or solution
- should be realistic
Few rules govern in writing of options
1. grammatically consistent with the stem
2. use good style and avoided giving clues
3. options should be fairly short and about the same length
4. if the answer is written longer, increase the length of the distracters as well
5. options should be place in logical order
6. avoid the use of qualifying terms, such as always, sometimes, usually and never
7. be sure to alter the positions of the correct answers
TRUE- FALSE QUESTIONS
- are designed to tests learner’s ability to identify the correctness of statements of fact or principle
- the weakness is that the learner has a 50/50 chance of guessing the right answer
Variations of true- false question
1. ask the learner to give the rationale for why the item is true or false
2. ask the learner to rewrite false statement to make the true
From Whom or What to Collect Data
WHOM?
• directly from the individuals whose behavior or knowledge is being evaluated
• from surrogates or representatives of these individuals
• from documentation or databases already created
WHAT?
Pre existing databases should never be used as the only source of evaluative data unless they were created for the purpose of that evaluation.
Eventhough these data were collected for different purpose, they may be helpful for providing additional information to the primary audience for the evaluation.
Data already in existence generally are less expensive to obtain than are original data.
The Decision whether to use pre existing data depends on whether they were collected from people of interest in the current evaluation and whether they are consistent with operational definitions used in the current evaluation.
How, When, and Where to Collect Data.
HOW?
Methods for how data can be collected include the following:
• Observation
• Interview
• Questionnaire or written examination
• Record review
• Secondary analysis of existing databases.
Which method is selected depends, first, on the type of data being collected and, second, on available resources. Whenever possible, data should be collected using more than one method. Using multiple methods will provide the evaluator, and consequently the primary audience, with more than could be accomplished using a single method.
WHEN?
The timing of data collection, or when data collection takes place,
has already been addressed both in discussion of different types of evaluation and in descriptions of evaluation design structures.
1. Process evaluation------generally occurs during and immediately after an educational activity.
2. Content evaluation------takes place immediately after completion of education.
3. Outcome evaluation-----occurs some time after completion of education, after learners have returned to the setting where they are expected to use new knowledge or perform a new skill.
4. Impact evaluation------generally is conducted from weeks to years after the educational program being evaluated because the purpose of impact evaluation is to determine what change has occurred within the community or institution as a whole as a result of an educational program.
WHERE?
An appropriate setting for conducting a content evaluation may be in the classroom or skill laboratory where learners have just completed class instruction or training.
An outcome evaluation to determine whether training has improved the nurse’s ability to perform skill with patients on the nursing unit, however, requires that data collection – in this case, observation of the nurse’s performance – be conducted on the nursing unit.
an outcome evaluation to determine whether discharge teaching in the hospital enabled the patient to provide self-care at home requires that data collection, or observation of the patient’s performance, be conducted in the home.
Who Collects Data.
WHO?
Combining the role of evaluator is one appropriate method for conducting a process evaluation because evaluative data are integral to the teaching-learning process.
Inviting another educator or a patient representative to observe a class can provide additional data from the perspective of someone who does not have to divide his or her attention between teaching and evaluating. This section, and perhaps less biased, input can strength legitimacy and usefulness of evaluation results.
EVALUATION INSTRUMENT
This chapter is intended to present keypoints to consider in selection, modification, or construction of evaluation instruments.
The initial step in instrument selection is to conduct a literature search for evaluations similar to the evaluation being planned. A helpful place to begin is with the same journals listed earlier in this chapter. Instruments that have used in more than one study should be given preference over an instrument developed for a single use, because instruments used multiple times generally have been more thoroughly tested for reliability and validity.
First, the instrument must measure the performance being evaluated exactly as that performance has been operationally defined for the evaluation.
Second, an appropriate instrument should have documented evidence of its reliability and validity with individuals who are closely matched as possible with the people from whom you will be collecting data.
The evaluation instrument most likely to require modification from an existing tool or development of an entirely new instrument is a cognitive test.
The primary reason for constructing such a test is to be comprehensive and relevant and to fairly test the learner’s knowledge of content covered.
Use of a test blueprint is one of the most useful methods for ensuring comprehensiveness and relevance of test questions because the blueprint enables the evaluator to be certain that each area of course content is included in the test and that content areas emphasized during instruction are similarly emphasized during test.
BARRIERS TO EVALUATION
Barriers to conducting an evaluation can be classified into three broad categories:
1. Lack of Clarity. Lack of clarity most often results from an unclear, unstated, or ill-defined evaluation focus.
2. Lack of Ability. Lack of ability to conduct an evaluation most often results from insufficient knowledge of how to conduct the evaluation or insufficient or inaccessible resources needed to conduct the evaluation.
3.Fear of Punishment or Loss of Self-Esteem. Evaluation may be perceived as judgment of personal worth. Individuals being evaluated may fear that anything less than a perfect performance will result in punishment of that their mistakes will be seen as evidence that they are somehow unworthy or incompetent as human beings.
STEPS ON HOW TO OVERCOME THE BARRIERS
The first step in overcoming this barrier is to realize that the potential for its existence may be close to 100%. Individuals whose performance or knowledge is being evaluated are not likely to say overtly that evaluation represents a threat to them. Rather, they are far more likely to demonstrate self-protective behaviors or attitudes that can range from failure to attend a class that has a post-test, to providing socially desirable answer on a questionnaire, to responding with hostility to evaluation questions.
The second step in overcoming the barrier of fear or threat is to remember that “the person is more important than the performance of the product” (Narrow, 1979, p. 185). If the purpose of an evaluation is to facilitate better learning, as in process evaluation, focus on the process.
A third step in overcoming the fear of punishment or threatening loss of self-esteem is to point out achievements, if they exist, or to continue to encourage effort if learning has not been achieved. Give praise honestly, focusing on the task at hand.
Finally, and perhaps most importantly, use communication of information to prevent or minimize fear. Lack of clarity exists as a barrier for those who are subjects of an evaluation as much as for those who will conduct the evaluation. If learners or educators know and understand the focus of an evaluation, they may be less fearful than if such information is left to their imaginations. Remember that failure to provide certain information may unethical or even illegal.
CONDUCTING THE EVALUATION
To conduct an evaluation means to implement the evaluation design by using the instruments chosen or developed according to the methods selected. How smoothly an evaluation is implemented depends primarily on how carefully and thoroughly the evaluation was planned. Planning is not a complete guarantee of success, however.
3 methods to minimize the effects of unexpected events that occur when carrying out an evaluation are to:
(1) conduct a pilot test first
(2) include “extra” time
(3) keep a sense of humor.
ANALYZING AND INTERPRETING DATA COLLECTED
The purposes for conducting data analysis are
(1) to organize data so that they can provide meaningful information
(2) to provide answers to evaluation questions.
Data and information are not synonymous terms. That is, a mass of numbers or a mass of comments does not become information until it has been organized into coherent tables, graphs, or categories that are relevant to the purpose for conducting the evaluation.
Data can be qualitative or quantitative
Qualitative Data- all qualitative data are at the nominal level of measurement meaning they are described in terms of categories such as health focused versus illness focused
Quantitative Data can be:
• Nominal
• Ordinal
• Interval
• Ratio level of measurement
Data also can be described as continuous or discrete.
Examples of Continuous Data:
1. Age
2. Level of Anxiety
Examples of Discrete Data:
1. Gender
2. Diagnosis
REPORTING EVALUATION RESULTS
Following a few guidelines when planning the likelihood that results of the evaluation will be reported to the appropriate individuals or groups, in a timely manner, and in usable form:
• Be audience focused
• Stick to the evaluation purpose
• Stick to the data
Sunday, August 2, 2009
Clinical teaching
What is classroom assessment?
Classroom assessment is both a teaching approach and a set of techniques. The approach is that the more you know about what and how students are learning, the better you can plan learning activities to structure your teaching. The techniques are mostly simple, non-graded, anonymous, in-class activities that give both you and your students useful feedback on the teaching-learning process.
How is classroom assessment different?
Classroom assessment differs from tests and other forms of student assessment in that it is aimed at course improvement, rather than at assigning grades. The primary goal is to better understand your students' learning and so to improve your teaching.
How do I use Classroom Assessment Techniques?
• Decide what you want to learn from a classroom assessment.
• Choose a Classroom Assessment Technique (CAT) that provides this feedback, is consistent with your teaching style, and can be easily implemented in your class.
• Explain the purpose of the activity to students, then conduct it.
• After class, review the results and decide what changes, if any, to make.
• Let your students know what you learned from the CAT and how you will use this information.
Why should I use CATs?
For faculty, more frequent use of CATs can:
• Provide short-term feedback about the day-to-day learning and teaching process at a time when it is still possible to make mid-course corrections.
• Provide useful information about student learning with a much lower investment of time compared to tests, papers, and other traditional means of learning assessment.
• Help to foster good rapport with students and increase the efficacy of teaching and learning.
• Encourage the view that teaching is a formative process that evolves over time with feedback.
For students, more frequent use of CATs can:
• Help them become better monitors of their own learning.
• Help break down feelings of anonymity, especially in larger courses.
• Point out the need to alter study skills.
• Provide concrete evidence that the instructor cares about learning.
Selected CATs for getting feedback on student learning and response to teaching[1]
Name: Description: What to do with the data: Time required:
Minute paper[2]
During the last few minutes of the class period, ask students to answer on a half-sheet of paper: "What is the most important point you learned today?"; and, "What point remains least clear to you?". The purpose is to elicit data about students' comprehension of a particular class session. Review responses and note any useful comments. During the next class periods emphasize the issues illuminated by your students' comments. Prep: Low
In class: Low
Analysis: Low
Chain Notes Students pass around an envelope on which the teacher has written one question about the class. When the envelope reaches a student he/she spends a moment to respond to the question and then places the response in the envelope. Go through the student responses and determine the best criteria for categorizing the data with the goal of detecting response patterns. Discussing the patterns of responses with students can lead to better teaching and learning. Prep: Low
In class: Low
Analysis: Low
Memory matrix Students fill in cells of a two-dimensional diagram for which instructor has provided labels. For example, in a music course, labels might consist of periods (Baroque, Classical) by countries (Germany, France, Britain); students enter composers in cells to demonstrate their ability to remember and classify key concepts. Tally the numbers of correct and incorrect responses in each cell. Analyze differences both between and among the cells. Look for patterns among the incorrect responses and decide what might be the cause(s). Prep: Med
In class: Med
Analysis: Med
Directed paraphrasing Ask students to write a layman’s "translation" of something they have just learned -- geared to a specified individual or audience -- to assess their ability to comprehend and transfer concepts. Categorize student responses according to characteristics you feel are important. Analyze the responses both within and across categories, noting ways you could address student needs. Prep: Low
In class: Med
Analysis: Med
One-sentence summary Students summarize knowledge of a topic by constructing a single sentence that answers the questions "Who does what to whom, when, where, how, and why?" The purpose is to require students to select only the defining features of an idea. Evaluate the quality of each summary quickly and holistically. Note whether students have identified the essential concepts of the class topic and their interrelationships. Share your observations with your students. Prep: Low
In class: Med
Analysis: Med
Exam Evaluations Select a type of test that you are likely to give more than once or that has a significant impact on student performance. Create a few questions that evaluate the quality of the test. Add these questions to the exam or administer a separate, follow-up evaluation. Try to distinguish student comments that address the fairness of your grading from those that address the fairness of the test as an assessment instrument. Respond to the general ideas represented by student comments. Prep: Low
In class: Low
Analysis: Med
Application cards After teaching about an important theory, principle, or procedure, ask students to write down at least one real-world application for what they have just learned to determine how well they can transfer their learning. Quickly read once through the applications and categorize them according to their quality. Pick out a broad range of examples and present them to the class. Prep: Low
In class: Low
Analysis: Med
Student- generated test questions Allow students to write test questions and model answers for specified topics, in a format consistent with course exams. This will give students the opportunity to evaluate the course topics, reflect on what they understand, and what are good test items. Make a rough tally of the questions your students propose and the topics that they cover. Evaluate the questions and use the goods ones as prompts for discussion. You may also want to revise the questions and use them on the upcoming exam. Prep: Med
In class: High
Analysis: High
(may be homework)
[1] Details on these and others available from Angelo & Cross, Classroom Assessment techniques, 1993.
[2] The Bureau of Evaluative Studies and Testing (BEST) can administer the Minute Paper electronically.
Published Resources:
Angelo, T.A. & Cross, P.K. (1993). Classroom Assessment Techniques (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Davis, B.G. (1993). Tools for Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Welcome to Classroom Assessment
Classroom assessments can include a wide range of options -- from recording anecdotal notes while observing a student to administering standardized tests. Regardless of the form, effective classroom assessments provide the feedback and motivation that students need to excel.
This course is divided into 2 parts, each containing 3 lessons. Part I focuses on basic concepts and common assessments such as multiple choice and essay questions. Part II includes performance assessment, classroom interactions, and attitude surveys. Throughout the lessons, resources and techniques for integrating technology are included.
This course can be used as a "self-study" or it can be used for Continuing Education Units (if your district has a facilitator). Each lesson contains sample assessments along with multiple activities that reinforce the concepts. Before you take the course, please fill out the Survey to help gauge your experience level. At the end of the course, a similar survey will be available.
Overview
Selected response assessment items (also referred to as objective assessments) include options such as multiple choice, matching, and true/false questions. These question types can be very effective and efficient methods for measuring students’ knowledge and reasoning. Because many of the standardized tests are based heavily on multiple choice questions, teachers should be skilled at developing effective objective assessment items. In addition, teachers should be able to construct quizzes that target higher level thinking skills (consistent with the application, analysis, and synthesis levels of Bloom’s taxonomy), and they should evaluate their instruments by conducting item analyses.
A. Formative vs. Summative Assessments
Classroom assessments can include a wide range of options -- from recording anecdotal notes while observing a student to administering standardized tests. The options can be roughly divided into two categories -- formative assessments and summative assessments.
Formative assessments are on-going assessments, reviews, and observations in a classroom . Teachers use formative assessment to improve instructional methods and student feedback throughout the teaching and learning process. For example, if a teacher observes that some students do not grasp a concept, she or he can design a review activity or use a different instructional strategy. Likewise, students can monitor their progress with periodic quizzes and performance tasks. The results of formative assessments are used to modify and validate instruction.
Summative assessments are typically used to evaluate the effectiveness of instructional programs and services at the end of an academic year or at a pre-determined time. The goal of summative assessments is to make a judgment of student competency -- after an instructional phase is complete. For example, in Florida, the FCAT is administered once a year -- it is a summative assessment to determine each student's ability at pre-determined points in time. Summative evaluations are used to determine if students have mastered specific competencies and to identify instructional areas that need additional attention.
The following table highlights some formative and summative assessments that are common in K12 schools.
Formative Assessments Summative Assessments
Anecdotal records Final exams
Quizzes and essays Statewide tests (FCAT)
Diagnostic tests National tests
Lab reports Entrance exams (SAT and ACT)
B. Writing Selected Response Assessment Items
Selected response (objective) assessment items are very efficient – once the items are created, you can assess and score a great deal of content rather quickly. Note that the term objective refers to the fact that each question has a right and wrong answer and that they can be impartially scored. In fact, the scoring can be automated if you have access to an optical scanner for scoring paper tests or a computer for computerized tests. However, the construction of these “objective” items might well include subjective input by the teacher/creator.
Before you write the assessment items, you should create a blueprint that outlines the content areas and the cognitive skills you are targeting. One way to do this is to list your instructional objectives, along with the corresponding cognitive level. For example, the following table has four different objectives and the corresponding levels of assessment (relative to Bloom's taxonomy). For each objective, five assessment items will be written, some at Level I and some at Level II. This approach helps to ensure that all objectives are covered and that several higher level thinking skills are included in the assessment.
Objective Number of Items at Level I
(Bloom's Taxonomy) Number of Items at Level II
(Blooms' Taxonomy)
1 2 3
2 3 2
3 1 4
4 4 1
After you have determined how many items you need for each level, you can begin writing the assessments. There are several forms of selected response assessments, including multiple choice, matching, and true/false. Regardless of the form you select, be sure the items are clearly worded at the appropriate reading level, do not include unintentional clues, and are not ambiguous. The validity of your test will suffer tremendously if the students can’t comprehend or read the questions! This section includes a few guidelines for constructing objective assessment items, along with examples and non-examples.
Multiple Choice
Multiple choice questions consist of a stem (question or statement) with several answer choices (distractors). For each of the following guidelines, click the buttons to view an Example or Non-Example.
• All answer choices should be plausible and homogeneous.
o Example
o Non-Example
• Answer choices should be similar in length and grammatical form.
o Example
o Non-Example
• List answer choices in logical (alphabetical or numerical) order.
o Example
o Non-Example
• Avoid using "All of the Above" options.
o Example
o Non-Example
Matching
Matching items consist of two lists of words, phrases, or images (often referred to as stems and responses). Students review the list of stems and match each with a word, phrase, or image from the list of responses. For each of the following guidelines, click the buttons to view an Example or Non-Example.
• Answer choices should be short, homogeneous and arranged in logical order.
o Example
o Non-Example
• Responses should be plausible and similar in length and grammatical form.
o Example
o Non-Example
• Include more response options than stems.
o Example
o Non-Example
• As a general rule, the stems should be longer and the responses should be shorter.
o Example
o Non-Example
True/False
True/false questions can appear to be easier to write; however, it is difficult to write effective true/false questions. Also, the reliability of T/F questions is not generally very high because of the high possibility of guessing. In most cases, T/F questions are not recommended.
• Statements should be completely true or completely false.
o Example
o Non-Example
• Use simple, easy-to-follow statements.
o Example
o Non-Example
• Avoid using negatives -- especially double negatives.
o Example
o Non-Example
• Avoid absolutes such as "always; never."
o Example
o Non-Example
B. Essay Questions (Short and Extended Response)
Essay questions are a more complex version of constructed response assessments. With essay questions, there is one general question or proposition, and the student is asked to respond in writing. This type of assessment is very powerful -- it allows the students to express themselves and demonstrate their reasoning related to a topic. Essay questions often demand the use of higher level thinking skills, such as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
Essay questions may appear to be easier to write than multiple choice and other question types, but writing effective essay questions requires a great deal of thought and planning. If an essay question is vague, it will be much more difficult for the students to answer and much more difficult for the instructor to score. Well-written essay questions have the following features:
• They specify how the students should respond.
o Example
o Non-Example
• They provide information about the value/weight of the question and how it will be scored.
o Example
o Non-Example
• They emphasize higher-level thinking skills.
o Example
o Non-Example
Essay questions are used both as formative assessments (in classrooms) and summative assessments (on standardized tests). There are 2 major categories of essay questions -- short response (also referred to as restricted or brief ) and extended response.
Short Response
Short response questions are more focused and constrained than extended response questions. For example, a short response might ask a student to "write an example," "list three reasons," or "compare and contrast two techniques." The short response items on the Florida assessment (FCAT) are designed to take about 5 minutes to complete and the student is allowed up to 8 lines for each answer. The short responses are scored using a 2-point scoring rubric. A complete and correct answer is worth 2 points. A partial answer is worth 1 point.
Sample Short Response Question
(10th Grade Reading)
How are the scrub jay and the mockingbird different? Support your answer with details and information from the article.
Extended Response
Extended responses can be much longer and complex then short responses, but students should be encouraged to remain focused and organized. On the FCAT, students have 14 lines for each answer to an extended response item, and they are advised to allow approximately 10-15 minutes to complete each item. The FCAT extended responses are scored using a 4-point scoring rubric. A complete and correct answer is worth 4 points. A partial answer is worth 1, 2, or 3 points.
Sample Extended Response Question
(5th Grade Science)
Robert is designing a demonstration to display at his school’s science fair. He will show how changing the position of a fulcrum on a lever changes the amount of force needed to lift an object. To do this, Robert will use a piece of wood for a lever and a block of wood to act as a fulcrum. He plans to move the fulcrum to different places on the lever to see how its placement affects the force needed to lift an object.
Part A Identify at least two other actions that would make Robert’s demonstration better.
Part B Explain why each action would improve the demonstration.
A. Fill-in-the-Blank Items
The simplest forms of constructed response questions are fill-in-the-blank or short answer questions. For example, the question may take one of the following forms:
1. Who was the 16th president of the United States?
2. The 16th president of the United States was ___________________.
These assessments are relatively easy to construct, yet they have the potential to test recall, rather than simply recognition. They also control for guessing, which can be a major factor, especially for T/F or multiple choice questions.
When creating short answer items, make sure the question is clear and there is a single, correct answer. Here are a few guidelines, along with examples and non-examples
• Ask a direct question that has a definitive answer.
o Example
o Non-Example
• If using fill-in-the blank, use only one blank per item.
o Example
o Non-Example
• If using fill-in-the blank, place the blank near the end of the sentence.
o Example
o Non-Example
Although constructed response assessments can more easily demand higher levels of thinking, they are more difficult to score. For example, scantrons (optical grade scanners) cannot score this type of assessment, and computer-based scoring is difficult because you must include all synonyms and acceptable answers. For example, all of the following might be acceptable answers to the sample question: "Who was the 16th president of the United States?" Abraham Lincoln; Abe Lincoln; Lincoln; President Lincoln; Honest Abe; the Railsplitter. You might also want to accept common mis-spellings such as Abrahem or Lencoln (depending on the objective).
Classroom assessment is both a teaching approach and a set of techniques. The approach is that the more you know about what and how students are learning, the better you can plan learning activities to structure your teaching. The techniques are mostly simple, non-graded, anonymous, in-class activities that give both you and your students useful feedback on the teaching-learning process.
How is classroom assessment different?
Classroom assessment differs from tests and other forms of student assessment in that it is aimed at course improvement, rather than at assigning grades. The primary goal is to better understand your students' learning and so to improve your teaching.
How do I use Classroom Assessment Techniques?
• Decide what you want to learn from a classroom assessment.
• Choose a Classroom Assessment Technique (CAT) that provides this feedback, is consistent with your teaching style, and can be easily implemented in your class.
• Explain the purpose of the activity to students, then conduct it.
• After class, review the results and decide what changes, if any, to make.
• Let your students know what you learned from the CAT and how you will use this information.
Why should I use CATs?
For faculty, more frequent use of CATs can:
• Provide short-term feedback about the day-to-day learning and teaching process at a time when it is still possible to make mid-course corrections.
• Provide useful information about student learning with a much lower investment of time compared to tests, papers, and other traditional means of learning assessment.
• Help to foster good rapport with students and increase the efficacy of teaching and learning.
• Encourage the view that teaching is a formative process that evolves over time with feedback.
For students, more frequent use of CATs can:
• Help them become better monitors of their own learning.
• Help break down feelings of anonymity, especially in larger courses.
• Point out the need to alter study skills.
• Provide concrete evidence that the instructor cares about learning.
Selected CATs for getting feedback on student learning and response to teaching[1]
Name: Description: What to do with the data: Time required:
Minute paper[2]
During the last few minutes of the class period, ask students to answer on a half-sheet of paper: "What is the most important point you learned today?"; and, "What point remains least clear to you?". The purpose is to elicit data about students' comprehension of a particular class session. Review responses and note any useful comments. During the next class periods emphasize the issues illuminated by your students' comments. Prep: Low
In class: Low
Analysis: Low
Chain Notes Students pass around an envelope on which the teacher has written one question about the class. When the envelope reaches a student he/she spends a moment to respond to the question and then places the response in the envelope. Go through the student responses and determine the best criteria for categorizing the data with the goal of detecting response patterns. Discussing the patterns of responses with students can lead to better teaching and learning. Prep: Low
In class: Low
Analysis: Low
Memory matrix Students fill in cells of a two-dimensional diagram for which instructor has provided labels. For example, in a music course, labels might consist of periods (Baroque, Classical) by countries (Germany, France, Britain); students enter composers in cells to demonstrate their ability to remember and classify key concepts. Tally the numbers of correct and incorrect responses in each cell. Analyze differences both between and among the cells. Look for patterns among the incorrect responses and decide what might be the cause(s). Prep: Med
In class: Med
Analysis: Med
Directed paraphrasing Ask students to write a layman’s "translation" of something they have just learned -- geared to a specified individual or audience -- to assess their ability to comprehend and transfer concepts. Categorize student responses according to characteristics you feel are important. Analyze the responses both within and across categories, noting ways you could address student needs. Prep: Low
In class: Med
Analysis: Med
One-sentence summary Students summarize knowledge of a topic by constructing a single sentence that answers the questions "Who does what to whom, when, where, how, and why?" The purpose is to require students to select only the defining features of an idea. Evaluate the quality of each summary quickly and holistically. Note whether students have identified the essential concepts of the class topic and their interrelationships. Share your observations with your students. Prep: Low
In class: Med
Analysis: Med
Exam Evaluations Select a type of test that you are likely to give more than once or that has a significant impact on student performance. Create a few questions that evaluate the quality of the test. Add these questions to the exam or administer a separate, follow-up evaluation. Try to distinguish student comments that address the fairness of your grading from those that address the fairness of the test as an assessment instrument. Respond to the general ideas represented by student comments. Prep: Low
In class: Low
Analysis: Med
Application cards After teaching about an important theory, principle, or procedure, ask students to write down at least one real-world application for what they have just learned to determine how well they can transfer their learning. Quickly read once through the applications and categorize them according to their quality. Pick out a broad range of examples and present them to the class. Prep: Low
In class: Low
Analysis: Med
Student- generated test questions Allow students to write test questions and model answers for specified topics, in a format consistent with course exams. This will give students the opportunity to evaluate the course topics, reflect on what they understand, and what are good test items. Make a rough tally of the questions your students propose and the topics that they cover. Evaluate the questions and use the goods ones as prompts for discussion. You may also want to revise the questions and use them on the upcoming exam. Prep: Med
In class: High
Analysis: High
(may be homework)
[1] Details on these and others available from Angelo & Cross, Classroom Assessment techniques, 1993.
[2] The Bureau of Evaluative Studies and Testing (BEST) can administer the Minute Paper electronically.
Published Resources:
Angelo, T.A. & Cross, P.K. (1993). Classroom Assessment Techniques (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Davis, B.G. (1993). Tools for Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Welcome to Classroom Assessment
Classroom assessments can include a wide range of options -- from recording anecdotal notes while observing a student to administering standardized tests. Regardless of the form, effective classroom assessments provide the feedback and motivation that students need to excel.
This course is divided into 2 parts, each containing 3 lessons. Part I focuses on basic concepts and common assessments such as multiple choice and essay questions. Part II includes performance assessment, classroom interactions, and attitude surveys. Throughout the lessons, resources and techniques for integrating technology are included.
This course can be used as a "self-study" or it can be used for Continuing Education Units (if your district has a facilitator). Each lesson contains sample assessments along with multiple activities that reinforce the concepts. Before you take the course, please fill out the Survey to help gauge your experience level. At the end of the course, a similar survey will be available.
Overview
Selected response assessment items (also referred to as objective assessments) include options such as multiple choice, matching, and true/false questions. These question types can be very effective and efficient methods for measuring students’ knowledge and reasoning. Because many of the standardized tests are based heavily on multiple choice questions, teachers should be skilled at developing effective objective assessment items. In addition, teachers should be able to construct quizzes that target higher level thinking skills (consistent with the application, analysis, and synthesis levels of Bloom’s taxonomy), and they should evaluate their instruments by conducting item analyses.
A. Formative vs. Summative Assessments
Classroom assessments can include a wide range of options -- from recording anecdotal notes while observing a student to administering standardized tests. The options can be roughly divided into two categories -- formative assessments and summative assessments.
Formative assessments are on-going assessments, reviews, and observations in a classroom . Teachers use formative assessment to improve instructional methods and student feedback throughout the teaching and learning process. For example, if a teacher observes that some students do not grasp a concept, she or he can design a review activity or use a different instructional strategy. Likewise, students can monitor their progress with periodic quizzes and performance tasks. The results of formative assessments are used to modify and validate instruction.
Summative assessments are typically used to evaluate the effectiveness of instructional programs and services at the end of an academic year or at a pre-determined time. The goal of summative assessments is to make a judgment of student competency -- after an instructional phase is complete. For example, in Florida, the FCAT is administered once a year -- it is a summative assessment to determine each student's ability at pre-determined points in time. Summative evaluations are used to determine if students have mastered specific competencies and to identify instructional areas that need additional attention.
The following table highlights some formative and summative assessments that are common in K12 schools.
Formative Assessments Summative Assessments
Anecdotal records Final exams
Quizzes and essays Statewide tests (FCAT)
Diagnostic tests National tests
Lab reports Entrance exams (SAT and ACT)
B. Writing Selected Response Assessment Items
Selected response (objective) assessment items are very efficient – once the items are created, you can assess and score a great deal of content rather quickly. Note that the term objective refers to the fact that each question has a right and wrong answer and that they can be impartially scored. In fact, the scoring can be automated if you have access to an optical scanner for scoring paper tests or a computer for computerized tests. However, the construction of these “objective” items might well include subjective input by the teacher/creator.
Before you write the assessment items, you should create a blueprint that outlines the content areas and the cognitive skills you are targeting. One way to do this is to list your instructional objectives, along with the corresponding cognitive level. For example, the following table has four different objectives and the corresponding levels of assessment (relative to Bloom's taxonomy). For each objective, five assessment items will be written, some at Level I and some at Level II. This approach helps to ensure that all objectives are covered and that several higher level thinking skills are included in the assessment.
Objective Number of Items at Level I
(Bloom's Taxonomy) Number of Items at Level II
(Blooms' Taxonomy)
1 2 3
2 3 2
3 1 4
4 4 1
After you have determined how many items you need for each level, you can begin writing the assessments. There are several forms of selected response assessments, including multiple choice, matching, and true/false. Regardless of the form you select, be sure the items are clearly worded at the appropriate reading level, do not include unintentional clues, and are not ambiguous. The validity of your test will suffer tremendously if the students can’t comprehend or read the questions! This section includes a few guidelines for constructing objective assessment items, along with examples and non-examples.
Multiple Choice
Multiple choice questions consist of a stem (question or statement) with several answer choices (distractors). For each of the following guidelines, click the buttons to view an Example or Non-Example.
• All answer choices should be plausible and homogeneous.
o Example
o Non-Example
• Answer choices should be similar in length and grammatical form.
o Example
o Non-Example
• List answer choices in logical (alphabetical or numerical) order.
o Example
o Non-Example
• Avoid using "All of the Above" options.
o Example
o Non-Example
Matching
Matching items consist of two lists of words, phrases, or images (often referred to as stems and responses). Students review the list of stems and match each with a word, phrase, or image from the list of responses. For each of the following guidelines, click the buttons to view an Example or Non-Example.
• Answer choices should be short, homogeneous and arranged in logical order.
o Example
o Non-Example
• Responses should be plausible and similar in length and grammatical form.
o Example
o Non-Example
• Include more response options than stems.
o Example
o Non-Example
• As a general rule, the stems should be longer and the responses should be shorter.
o Example
o Non-Example
True/False
True/false questions can appear to be easier to write; however, it is difficult to write effective true/false questions. Also, the reliability of T/F questions is not generally very high because of the high possibility of guessing. In most cases, T/F questions are not recommended.
• Statements should be completely true or completely false.
o Example
o Non-Example
• Use simple, easy-to-follow statements.
o Example
o Non-Example
• Avoid using negatives -- especially double negatives.
o Example
o Non-Example
• Avoid absolutes such as "always; never."
o Example
o Non-Example
B. Essay Questions (Short and Extended Response)
Essay questions are a more complex version of constructed response assessments. With essay questions, there is one general question or proposition, and the student is asked to respond in writing. This type of assessment is very powerful -- it allows the students to express themselves and demonstrate their reasoning related to a topic. Essay questions often demand the use of higher level thinking skills, such as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
Essay questions may appear to be easier to write than multiple choice and other question types, but writing effective essay questions requires a great deal of thought and planning. If an essay question is vague, it will be much more difficult for the students to answer and much more difficult for the instructor to score. Well-written essay questions have the following features:
• They specify how the students should respond.
o Example
o Non-Example
• They provide information about the value/weight of the question and how it will be scored.
o Example
o Non-Example
• They emphasize higher-level thinking skills.
o Example
o Non-Example
Essay questions are used both as formative assessments (in classrooms) and summative assessments (on standardized tests). There are 2 major categories of essay questions -- short response (also referred to as restricted or brief ) and extended response.
Short Response
Short response questions are more focused and constrained than extended response questions. For example, a short response might ask a student to "write an example," "list three reasons," or "compare and contrast two techniques." The short response items on the Florida assessment (FCAT) are designed to take about 5 minutes to complete and the student is allowed up to 8 lines for each answer. The short responses are scored using a 2-point scoring rubric. A complete and correct answer is worth 2 points. A partial answer is worth 1 point.
Sample Short Response Question
(10th Grade Reading)
How are the scrub jay and the mockingbird different? Support your answer with details and information from the article.
Extended Response
Extended responses can be much longer and complex then short responses, but students should be encouraged to remain focused and organized. On the FCAT, students have 14 lines for each answer to an extended response item, and they are advised to allow approximately 10-15 minutes to complete each item. The FCAT extended responses are scored using a 4-point scoring rubric. A complete and correct answer is worth 4 points. A partial answer is worth 1, 2, or 3 points.
Sample Extended Response Question
(5th Grade Science)
Robert is designing a demonstration to display at his school’s science fair. He will show how changing the position of a fulcrum on a lever changes the amount of force needed to lift an object. To do this, Robert will use a piece of wood for a lever and a block of wood to act as a fulcrum. He plans to move the fulcrum to different places on the lever to see how its placement affects the force needed to lift an object.
Part A Identify at least two other actions that would make Robert’s demonstration better.
Part B Explain why each action would improve the demonstration.
A. Fill-in-the-Blank Items
The simplest forms of constructed response questions are fill-in-the-blank or short answer questions. For example, the question may take one of the following forms:
1. Who was the 16th president of the United States?
2. The 16th president of the United States was ___________________.
These assessments are relatively easy to construct, yet they have the potential to test recall, rather than simply recognition. They also control for guessing, which can be a major factor, especially for T/F or multiple choice questions.
When creating short answer items, make sure the question is clear and there is a single, correct answer. Here are a few guidelines, along with examples and non-examples
• Ask a direct question that has a definitive answer.
o Example
o Non-Example
• If using fill-in-the blank, use only one blank per item.
o Example
o Non-Example
• If using fill-in-the blank, place the blank near the end of the sentence.
o Example
o Non-Example
Although constructed response assessments can more easily demand higher levels of thinking, they are more difficult to score. For example, scantrons (optical grade scanners) cannot score this type of assessment, and computer-based scoring is difficult because you must include all synonyms and acceptable answers. For example, all of the following might be acceptable answers to the sample question: "Who was the 16th president of the United States?" Abraham Lincoln; Abe Lincoln; Lincoln; President Lincoln; Honest Abe; the Railsplitter. You might also want to accept common mis-spellings such as Abrahem or Lencoln (depending on the objective).
Wednesday, July 1, 2009
MSN: Nursing administration
Subject: Nursing Service Administration
Instructor: Vivian Dedace RN MAN
By: Cabalsa, Medel O.
Lagar, Daisie M.
Management Concepts
Management comprises planning, organizing, staffing, leading or directing, and controlling an organization (a group of one or more people or entities) or effort for the purpose of accomplishing a goal. Resourcing encompasses the deployment and manipulation of human resources, financial resources, technological resources, and natural resources.
Nursing management is performing leadership functions of governance and decision-making within organizations employing nurses. It includes processes common to all management like planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling. A good nurse manager should be open to anything in the environment and be sensitive to the needs of the staff under her/his management. It is common for RNs to seek additional education to earn a Master of Science in Nursing or Doctor of Nursing Science to prepare for leadership roles within nursing. Management positions increasingly require candidates to hold an advanced degree in nursing.
Theories of management
Scientific management (also called Taylorism or the Taylor system) is a theory of management that analyzes and synthesizes workflows, with the objective of improving labour productivity. The core ideas of the theory were developed by Frederick Winslow Taylor in the 1880s and 1890s, and were first published in his monographs, Shop Management (1905) and The Principles of Scientific Management (1911).[1] Taylor believed that decisions based upon tradition and rules of thumb should be replaced by precise procedures developed after careful study of an individual at work. Its application is contingent on a high level of managerial control over employee work practices.
Taylorism is a variation on the theme of efficiency; it is a late-19th-and-early-20th-century instance of the larger recurring theme in human life of increasing efficiency, decreasing waste, and using empirical methods to decide what matters, rather than uncritically accepting pre-existing ideas of what matters. Thus it is a chapter in the larger narrative that also includes, for example, the folk wisdom of thrift, time and motion study, Fordism, and lean manufacturing. It overlapped considerably with the Efficiency Movement, which was the broader cultural echo of scientific management's impact on business managers specifically.
Uncertainty management theory :Gudykunst’s first model of Anxiety/Uncertainty management theory was a fusion of the aforementioned URT and Tajfel’s Social Identity Theory, (1978) with a focus on intergroup communication. In 1988 Gudykunst paralleled his research slightly to attempt to explain intercultural adaptation as a result of uncertainty reduction. This version contained 24 axioms and incorporated the works of Stephan and Stephan on anxiety. The key conceptual difference between these two concepts explored by Gudykunst and the existing theory of URT was the intended outcome of the research. The outcome of URT is simply to reduce anxiety and uncertainty. Gudykunst’s intended outcome was for effective communication and cultural adaptation and not solely the reduction of anxiety. The inherent difference is that managing anxiety is to maintain it between minimum and maximum thresholds along a spectrum while reducing anxiety is unidirectional. This realization, along with the introduction of mindfulness as a factor of effective communication, led Gudykunst to finally designate an appropriate name for his research: Anxiety Uncertainty Management Theory (AUM).
Self-Regulation Theory or SRT is a system of conscious personal health management. Although a doctor may give a patient sound medical advice, the theory states that only with self-regulation will the patient appropriately implement that advice. For medical treatment to be effective, the patient needs to be interested in improving one's own health.
SRT consists of several stages. First, the patient deliberately monitors one's own behavior, and evaluates how this behavior affects one's health. If the desired effect is not realized, the patient changes personal behavior. If the desired effect is realized, the patient reinforces the effect by continuing the behavior. (Kanfer 1970;1971;1980
Boreout is a management theory that posits that lack of work, boredom, and consequent lack of satisfaction are a common malaise affecting individuals working in modern organizations, especially in office-based white collar jobs. This theory was first expounded in Diagnosis Boreout, a book by Peter Werder and Philippe Rothlin, two Swiss business consultants.
An absence of meaningful tasks, rather than stress, is the crucial problem for many workers according to Werder and Rothlin. Boreout consists of three elements: boredom, lack of challenge and disinterest. The authors disagree with the common perceptions that a demotivated employee is lazy; instead, they claim that the employee has lost interest in work tasks. Those suffering from boreout are ‘dissatisfied with their professional situation’.[1] They are frustrated by being unable to either contribute to the development of the company or use their skills, knowledge and abilities, or get recognised for their efforts.
Terror management theory (TMT) is a developing area of study within the academic study of psychology. It looks at what researchers claim to be the implicit emotional reactions of people when confronted with the psychological terror of knowing we will eventually die (some believe that awareness of mortality is a trait that is unique to humans). Empirical support for TMT has originated from more than 175 published experiments which have been conducted cross-culturally both nationally and internationally (Solomon, 2004).
The theory was first developed in the late 1980s by Skidmore College psychology professor Sheldon Solomon, University of Arizona psychology professor Jeff Greenberg, and Colorado University at Colorado Springs psychology professor Tom Pyszczynski, who were graduate students at the University of Kansas at the time. The trio were inspired by the theories of Ernest Becker (The Denial of Death, 1973), Otto Rank and Freud, on how potent reminders of one's own ultimate death often provoke a belief in some form of mystical transcendence (heaven, reincarnation, spiritualism, etc.) Terror management theory attempts to provide a rationale for the motivational catalysts of human behavior when life is threatened.
The theory builds from the assumption that the capability of self-reflection and the consciousness of one’s own mortality can be regarded as a continuous source for existential anguish. This "irresolvable paradox" is created from the desire to preserve life and the realization of that impossibility (because life is finite).
Humans are aware of the inevitability of their own death. Culture diminishes this psychological terror by providing meaning, organization and continuity to people's lives. Compliance with cultural values enhances one's feeling of security and self-esteem, provided that the individual is capable of living in accordance with whatever particular cultural standards apply to him or her. The belief in the rightness of the cultural values and standards creates the conviction necessary to live a reasonable and meaningful life. This cultural worldview provides a base of making sense of the world as stable and orderly, a place where one rests their hopes on symbolic immortality (e.g., fame, having children, legacies of wealth or fortune) or literal immortality (e.g., the promise of a life in an afterworld).
Principles of Management
1. Division of Work -
The specialization of the workforce, creating specific personal and professional development within the labour force and therefore increasing productivity; leads to specialization which increases the efficiency of labour. By separating a small part of work, the workers speed and accuracy in its performance increases. This principle is applicable to both technical as well as managerial work.
2. Authority and Responsibility-
The issue of commands followed by responsibility for their consequences. Authority means the right of a superior to give order to his subordinates; responsibility means obligation for performance. This principle suggests that there must be parity between authority and responsibilty.. They are co-existent and go together, and are two sides of the same coin.
3. Discipline-
Discipline refers to obedience, proper conduct in relation to others, respect of authority, etc. It is essential for the smooth functioning of all organizations.
4. Unity of Command -
This principle states that every subordinate should receive orders and be accountable to one and only one superior. If an employee receives orders from more than one superior, it is likely to create confusion and conflict.
Unity of Command also makes it easier to fix responsibility for mistakes.
5. Unity of Direction -
All those working in the same line of activity must understand and pursue the same objectives. All related activities should be put under one group, there should be one plan of action for them, and they should be under the control of one manager.
It seeks to ensure unity of action, focusing of efforts and coordination of strength.
6. Subordination of Individual Interest
The management must put aside personal considerations and put company objectives first. Therefore the interests of goals of the organization must prevail over the personal interests of individuals.
7. Remuneration -
Workers must be paid sufficiently as this is a chief motivation of employees and therefore greatly influences productivity. The quantum and methods of remuneration payable should be fair, reasonable and rewarding of effort.
8. The Degree of Centralization -
The amount of power wielded with the central management depends on company size. Centralization implies the concentration of decision making authority at the top management. Sharing of authority with lower levels is called decentralization. The organization should strive to achieve a proper balance.
9. Scalar Chain -
Scalar Chain refers to the chain of superiors ranging from top management to the lowest rank. The principle suggests that there should be a clear line of authority from top to bottom linking all managers at all levels. It is considered a chain of command. It involves a concept called a "gang plank" using which a subordinate may contact a superior or his superior in case of an emergency,defying the hierarchy of control.However the imediate superiors must be informed about the matter
10. Order -
Social order ensures the fluid operation of a company through authoritative procedure. Material order ensures safety and efficiency in the workplace.
11. Equity -
Employees must be treated kindly, and justice must be enacted to ensure a just workplace. Managers should be fair and impartial when dealing with employees.
12. Stability of Tenure of Personnel -
The period of service should not be too short and employees should not be moved from positions frequently. An employee cannot render useful service if he is removed before he becomes accustomed to the work assigned to him.
13. Initiative -
Using the initiative of employees can add strength and new ideas to an organization. Initiative on the part of employees is a source of strength for the organization because it provides new and better ideas. Employees are likely to take greater interest in the functioning of the organization.
14. Esprit de Corps -
This refers to the need of managers to ensure and develop morale in the workplace; individually and communally. Team spirit helps develop an atmosphere of mutual trust and understanding.
These can be used to initiate and aid the processes of change, organization, decision making, skill management and the overall view of the management function.
Fayol also divided the management function into five key roles:
• To organise
• To plan and forecast (Prevoyance)
• To command
• To control
• To coordinate
Managerial Roles
(Chris van Overveen - Senior Consultant Trimitra Consultants)
To meet the many demands of performing their functions, managers assume multiple roles. A role is an organized set of behaviors. Henry Mintzberg has identified ten roles common to the work of all managers. The ten roles are divided into three groups: interpersonal, informational, and decisional.
The informational roles link all managerial work together. The interpersonal roles ensure that information is provided. The decisional roles make significant use of the information.
The performance of managerial roles and the requirements of these roles can be played at different times by the same manager and to different degrees depending on the level and function of management. The ten roles are described individually, but they form an integrated whole.
The three interpersonal roles are primarily concerned with interpersonal relationships.
In the figurehead role, the manager represents the organization in all matters of formality. The top level manager represents the company legally and socially to those outside of the organization. The supervisor represents the work group to higher management and higher management to the work group.
In the liaison role, the manger interacts with peers and people outside the organization. The top level manager uses the liaison role to gain favors and information, while the supervisor uses it to maintain the routine flow of work.
The leader role defines the relationships between the manger and employees.
The direct relationships with people in the interpersonal roles place the manager in a unique position to get information.
Thus, the three informational roles are primarily concerned with the information aspects of managerial work. In the monitor role, the manager receives and collects information. In the role of disseminator, the manager transmits special information into the organization. The top level manager receives and transmits more information from people outside the organization than the supervisor.
In the role of spokesperson, the manager disseminates the organization's information into its environment. Thus, the top level manager is seen as an industry expert, while the supervisor is seen as a unit or departmental expert.
The unique access to information places the manager at the center of organizational decision making.
There are four decisional roles. In the entrepreneur role, the manager initiates change. In the disturbance handler role, the manger deals with threats to the organization. In the resource allocator role, the manager chooses where the organization will expend its efforts. In the negotiator role, the manager negotiates on behalf of the organization. The top level manager makes the decisions about the organization as a whole, while the supervisor makes decisions about his or her particular work unit.
The supervisor performs these managerial roles but with different emphasis than higher managers. Supervisory management is more focused and short-term in outlook.
Thus, the figurehead role becomes less significant and the disturbance handler and negotiator roles increase in importance for the supervisor.
Since leadership permeates all activities, the leader role is among the most important of all roles at all levels of management.
Instructor: Vivian Dedace RN MAN
By: Cabalsa, Medel O.
Lagar, Daisie M.
Management Concepts
Management comprises planning, organizing, staffing, leading or directing, and controlling an organization (a group of one or more people or entities) or effort for the purpose of accomplishing a goal. Resourcing encompasses the deployment and manipulation of human resources, financial resources, technological resources, and natural resources.
Nursing management is performing leadership functions of governance and decision-making within organizations employing nurses. It includes processes common to all management like planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling. A good nurse manager should be open to anything in the environment and be sensitive to the needs of the staff under her/his management. It is common for RNs to seek additional education to earn a Master of Science in Nursing or Doctor of Nursing Science to prepare for leadership roles within nursing. Management positions increasingly require candidates to hold an advanced degree in nursing.
Theories of management
Scientific management (also called Taylorism or the Taylor system) is a theory of management that analyzes and synthesizes workflows, with the objective of improving labour productivity. The core ideas of the theory were developed by Frederick Winslow Taylor in the 1880s and 1890s, and were first published in his monographs, Shop Management (1905) and The Principles of Scientific Management (1911).[1] Taylor believed that decisions based upon tradition and rules of thumb should be replaced by precise procedures developed after careful study of an individual at work. Its application is contingent on a high level of managerial control over employee work practices.
Taylorism is a variation on the theme of efficiency; it is a late-19th-and-early-20th-century instance of the larger recurring theme in human life of increasing efficiency, decreasing waste, and using empirical methods to decide what matters, rather than uncritically accepting pre-existing ideas of what matters. Thus it is a chapter in the larger narrative that also includes, for example, the folk wisdom of thrift, time and motion study, Fordism, and lean manufacturing. It overlapped considerably with the Efficiency Movement, which was the broader cultural echo of scientific management's impact on business managers specifically.
Uncertainty management theory :Gudykunst’s first model of Anxiety/Uncertainty management theory was a fusion of the aforementioned URT and Tajfel’s Social Identity Theory, (1978) with a focus on intergroup communication. In 1988 Gudykunst paralleled his research slightly to attempt to explain intercultural adaptation as a result of uncertainty reduction. This version contained 24 axioms and incorporated the works of Stephan and Stephan on anxiety. The key conceptual difference between these two concepts explored by Gudykunst and the existing theory of URT was the intended outcome of the research. The outcome of URT is simply to reduce anxiety and uncertainty. Gudykunst’s intended outcome was for effective communication and cultural adaptation and not solely the reduction of anxiety. The inherent difference is that managing anxiety is to maintain it between minimum and maximum thresholds along a spectrum while reducing anxiety is unidirectional. This realization, along with the introduction of mindfulness as a factor of effective communication, led Gudykunst to finally designate an appropriate name for his research: Anxiety Uncertainty Management Theory (AUM).
Self-Regulation Theory or SRT is a system of conscious personal health management. Although a doctor may give a patient sound medical advice, the theory states that only with self-regulation will the patient appropriately implement that advice. For medical treatment to be effective, the patient needs to be interested in improving one's own health.
SRT consists of several stages. First, the patient deliberately monitors one's own behavior, and evaluates how this behavior affects one's health. If the desired effect is not realized, the patient changes personal behavior. If the desired effect is realized, the patient reinforces the effect by continuing the behavior. (Kanfer 1970;1971;1980
Boreout is a management theory that posits that lack of work, boredom, and consequent lack of satisfaction are a common malaise affecting individuals working in modern organizations, especially in office-based white collar jobs. This theory was first expounded in Diagnosis Boreout, a book by Peter Werder and Philippe Rothlin, two Swiss business consultants.
An absence of meaningful tasks, rather than stress, is the crucial problem for many workers according to Werder and Rothlin. Boreout consists of three elements: boredom, lack of challenge and disinterest. The authors disagree with the common perceptions that a demotivated employee is lazy; instead, they claim that the employee has lost interest in work tasks. Those suffering from boreout are ‘dissatisfied with their professional situation’.[1] They are frustrated by being unable to either contribute to the development of the company or use their skills, knowledge and abilities, or get recognised for their efforts.
Terror management theory (TMT) is a developing area of study within the academic study of psychology. It looks at what researchers claim to be the implicit emotional reactions of people when confronted with the psychological terror of knowing we will eventually die (some believe that awareness of mortality is a trait that is unique to humans). Empirical support for TMT has originated from more than 175 published experiments which have been conducted cross-culturally both nationally and internationally (Solomon, 2004).
The theory was first developed in the late 1980s by Skidmore College psychology professor Sheldon Solomon, University of Arizona psychology professor Jeff Greenberg, and Colorado University at Colorado Springs psychology professor Tom Pyszczynski, who were graduate students at the University of Kansas at the time. The trio were inspired by the theories of Ernest Becker (The Denial of Death, 1973), Otto Rank and Freud, on how potent reminders of one's own ultimate death often provoke a belief in some form of mystical transcendence (heaven, reincarnation, spiritualism, etc.) Terror management theory attempts to provide a rationale for the motivational catalysts of human behavior when life is threatened.
The theory builds from the assumption that the capability of self-reflection and the consciousness of one’s own mortality can be regarded as a continuous source for existential anguish. This "irresolvable paradox" is created from the desire to preserve life and the realization of that impossibility (because life is finite).
Humans are aware of the inevitability of their own death. Culture diminishes this psychological terror by providing meaning, organization and continuity to people's lives. Compliance with cultural values enhances one's feeling of security and self-esteem, provided that the individual is capable of living in accordance with whatever particular cultural standards apply to him or her. The belief in the rightness of the cultural values and standards creates the conviction necessary to live a reasonable and meaningful life. This cultural worldview provides a base of making sense of the world as stable and orderly, a place where one rests their hopes on symbolic immortality (e.g., fame, having children, legacies of wealth or fortune) or literal immortality (e.g., the promise of a life in an afterworld).
Principles of Management
1. Division of Work -
The specialization of the workforce, creating specific personal and professional development within the labour force and therefore increasing productivity; leads to specialization which increases the efficiency of labour. By separating a small part of work, the workers speed and accuracy in its performance increases. This principle is applicable to both technical as well as managerial work.
2. Authority and Responsibility-
The issue of commands followed by responsibility for their consequences. Authority means the right of a superior to give order to his subordinates; responsibility means obligation for performance. This principle suggests that there must be parity between authority and responsibilty.. They are co-existent and go together, and are two sides of the same coin.
3. Discipline-
Discipline refers to obedience, proper conduct in relation to others, respect of authority, etc. It is essential for the smooth functioning of all organizations.
4. Unity of Command -
This principle states that every subordinate should receive orders and be accountable to one and only one superior. If an employee receives orders from more than one superior, it is likely to create confusion and conflict.
Unity of Command also makes it easier to fix responsibility for mistakes.
5. Unity of Direction -
All those working in the same line of activity must understand and pursue the same objectives. All related activities should be put under one group, there should be one plan of action for them, and they should be under the control of one manager.
It seeks to ensure unity of action, focusing of efforts and coordination of strength.
6. Subordination of Individual Interest
The management must put aside personal considerations and put company objectives first. Therefore the interests of goals of the organization must prevail over the personal interests of individuals.
7. Remuneration -
Workers must be paid sufficiently as this is a chief motivation of employees and therefore greatly influences productivity. The quantum and methods of remuneration payable should be fair, reasonable and rewarding of effort.
8. The Degree of Centralization -
The amount of power wielded with the central management depends on company size. Centralization implies the concentration of decision making authority at the top management. Sharing of authority with lower levels is called decentralization. The organization should strive to achieve a proper balance.
9. Scalar Chain -
Scalar Chain refers to the chain of superiors ranging from top management to the lowest rank. The principle suggests that there should be a clear line of authority from top to bottom linking all managers at all levels. It is considered a chain of command. It involves a concept called a "gang plank" using which a subordinate may contact a superior or his superior in case of an emergency,defying the hierarchy of control.However the imediate superiors must be informed about the matter
10. Order -
Social order ensures the fluid operation of a company through authoritative procedure. Material order ensures safety and efficiency in the workplace.
11. Equity -
Employees must be treated kindly, and justice must be enacted to ensure a just workplace. Managers should be fair and impartial when dealing with employees.
12. Stability of Tenure of Personnel -
The period of service should not be too short and employees should not be moved from positions frequently. An employee cannot render useful service if he is removed before he becomes accustomed to the work assigned to him.
13. Initiative -
Using the initiative of employees can add strength and new ideas to an organization. Initiative on the part of employees is a source of strength for the organization because it provides new and better ideas. Employees are likely to take greater interest in the functioning of the organization.
14. Esprit de Corps -
This refers to the need of managers to ensure and develop morale in the workplace; individually and communally. Team spirit helps develop an atmosphere of mutual trust and understanding.
These can be used to initiate and aid the processes of change, organization, decision making, skill management and the overall view of the management function.
Fayol also divided the management function into five key roles:
• To organise
• To plan and forecast (Prevoyance)
• To command
• To control
• To coordinate
Managerial Roles
(Chris van Overveen - Senior Consultant Trimitra Consultants)
To meet the many demands of performing their functions, managers assume multiple roles. A role is an organized set of behaviors. Henry Mintzberg has identified ten roles common to the work of all managers. The ten roles are divided into three groups: interpersonal, informational, and decisional.
The informational roles link all managerial work together. The interpersonal roles ensure that information is provided. The decisional roles make significant use of the information.
The performance of managerial roles and the requirements of these roles can be played at different times by the same manager and to different degrees depending on the level and function of management. The ten roles are described individually, but they form an integrated whole.
The three interpersonal roles are primarily concerned with interpersonal relationships.
In the figurehead role, the manager represents the organization in all matters of formality. The top level manager represents the company legally and socially to those outside of the organization. The supervisor represents the work group to higher management and higher management to the work group.
In the liaison role, the manger interacts with peers and people outside the organization. The top level manager uses the liaison role to gain favors and information, while the supervisor uses it to maintain the routine flow of work.
The leader role defines the relationships between the manger and employees.
The direct relationships with people in the interpersonal roles place the manager in a unique position to get information.
Thus, the three informational roles are primarily concerned with the information aspects of managerial work. In the monitor role, the manager receives and collects information. In the role of disseminator, the manager transmits special information into the organization. The top level manager receives and transmits more information from people outside the organization than the supervisor.
In the role of spokesperson, the manager disseminates the organization's information into its environment. Thus, the top level manager is seen as an industry expert, while the supervisor is seen as a unit or departmental expert.
The unique access to information places the manager at the center of organizational decision making.
There are four decisional roles. In the entrepreneur role, the manager initiates change. In the disturbance handler role, the manger deals with threats to the organization. In the resource allocator role, the manager chooses where the organization will expend its efforts. In the negotiator role, the manager negotiates on behalf of the organization. The top level manager makes the decisions about the organization as a whole, while the supervisor makes decisions about his or her particular work unit.
The supervisor performs these managerial roles but with different emphasis than higher managers. Supervisory management is more focused and short-term in outlook.
Thus, the figurehead role becomes less significant and the disturbance handler and negotiator roles increase in importance for the supervisor.
Since leadership permeates all activities, the leader role is among the most important of all roles at all levels of management.
Masterals : Nursing Management
MANAGEMENT ARTICLES
Managerial Roles
(Chris van Overveen - Senior Consultant Trimitra Consultants)
To meet the many demands of performing their functions, managers assume multiple roles. A role is an organized set of behaviors. Henry Mintzberg has identified ten roles common to the work of all managers. The ten roles are divided into three groups: interpersonal, informational, and decisional.
The informational roles link all managerial work together. The interpersonal roles ensure that information is provided. The decisional roles make significant use of the information.
The performance of managerial roles and the requirements of these roles can be played at different times by the same manager and to different degrees depending on the level and function of management. The ten roles are described individually, but they form an integrated whole.
The three interpersonal roles are primarily concerned with interpersonal relationships.
In the figurehead role, the manager represents the organization in all matters of formality. The top level manager represents the company legally and socially to those outside of the organization. The supervisor represents the work group to higher management and higher management to the work group.
In the liaison role, the manger interacts with peers and people outside the organization. The top level manager uses the liaison role to gain favors and information, while the supervisor uses it to maintain the routine flow of work.
The leader role defines the relationships between the manger and employees.
The direct relationships with people in the interpersonal roles place the manager in a unique position to get information.
Thus, the three informational roles are primarily concerned with the information aspects of managerial work. In the monitor role, the manager receives and collects information. In the role of disseminator, the manager transmits special information into the organization. The top level manager receives and transmits more information from people outside the organization than the supervisor.
In the role of spokesperson, the manager disseminates the organization's information into its environment. Thus, the top level manager is seen as an industry expert, while the supervisor is seen as a unit or departmental expert.
The unique access to information places the manager at the center of organizational decision making.
There are four decisional roles. In the entrepreneur role, the manager initiates change. In the disturbance handler role, the manger deals with threats to the organization. In the resource allocator role, the manager chooses where the organization will expend its efforts. In the negotiator role, the manager negotiates on behalf of the organization. The top level manager makes the decisions about the organization as a whole, while the supervisor makes decisions about his or her particular work unit.
The supervior performs these managerial roles but with different emphasis than higher managers. Supervisory management is more focused and short-term in outlook.
Thus, the figurehead role becomes less significant and the disturbance handler and negotiator roles increase in importance for the supervisor.
Since leadership permeates all activities, the leader role is among the most important of all roles at all levels of management.
The Principles of management [edit]
Management principles are statements of fundamental truth. These principles serve as guidelines for decisions and actions of managers. They are derived through observation and analysis of events which managers have to face in practice.
1. Division of Work -
The specialization of the workforce, creating specific personal and professional development within the labour force and therefore increasing productivity; leads to specialization which increases the efficiency of labour. By separating a small part of work, the workers speed and accuracy in its performance increases. This principle is applicable to both technical as well as managerial work.
2. Authority and Responsibility-
The issue of commands followed by responsibility for their consequences. Authority means the right of a superior to give order to his subordinates; responsibility means obligation for performance. This principle suggests that there must be parity between authority and responsibilty.. They are co-existent and go together, and are two sides of the same coin.
3. Discipline-
Discipline refers to obedience, proper conduct in relation to others, respect of authority, etc. It is essential for the smooth functioning of all organizations.
4. Unity of Command -
This principle states that every subordinate should receive orders and be accountable to one and only one superior. If an employee receives orders from more than one superior, it is likely to create confusion and conflict.
Unity of Command also makes it easier to fix responsibility for mistakes.
5. Unity of Direction -
All those working in the same line of activity must understand and pursue the same objectives. All related activities should be put under one group, there should be one plan of action for them, and they should be under the control of one manager.
It seeks to ensure unity of action, focusing of efforts and coordination of strength.
6. Subordination of Individual Interest
The management must put aside personal considerations and put company objectives first. Therefore the interests of goals of the organization must prevail over the personal interests of individuals.
7. Remuneration -
Workers must be paid sufficiently as this is a chief motivation of employees and therefore greatly influences productivity. The quantum and methods of remuneration payable should be fair, reasonable and rewarding of effort.
8. The Degree of Centralization -
The amount of power wielded with the central management depends on company size. Centralization implies the concentration of decision making authority at the top management. Sharing of authority with lower levels is called decentralization. The organization should strive to achieve a proper balance.
9. Scalar Chain -
Scalar Chain refers to the chain of superiors ranging from top management to the lowest rank. The principle suggests that there should be a clear line of authority from top to bottom linking all managers at all levels. It is considered a chain of command. It involves a concept called a "gang plank" using which a subordinate may contact a superior or his superior in case of an emergency,defying the hierarchy of control.However the imediate superiors must be informed about the matter
10. Order -
Social order ensures the fluid operation of a company through authoritative procedure. Material order ensures safety and efficiency in the workplace.
11. Equity -
Employees must be treated kindly, and justice must be enacted to ensure a just workplace. Managers should be fair and impartial when dealing with employees.
12. Stability of Tenure of Personnel -
The period of service should not be too short and employees should not be moved from positions frequently. An employee cannot render useful service if he is removed before he becomes accustomed to the work assigned to him.
13. Initiative -
Using the initiative of employees can add strength and new ideas to an organization. Initiative on the part of employees is a source of strength for the organization because it provides new and better ideas. Employees are likely to take greater interest in the functioning of the organization.
14. Esprit de Corps -
This refers to the need of managers to ensure and develop morale in the workplace; individually and communally. Team spirit helps develop an atmosphere of mutual trust and understanding.
These can be used to initiate and aid the processes of change, organization, decision making, skill management and the overall view of the management function.
Fayol also divided the management function into five key roles:
• To organise
• To plan and forecast (Prevoyance)
• To command
• To control
• To coordinate
Management comprises planning, organizing, staffing, leading or directing, and controlling an organization (a group of one or more people or entities) or effort for the purpose of accomplishing a goal. Resourcing encompasses the deployment and manipulation of human resources, financial resources, technological resources, and natural resources.
Management can also refer to the person or people who perform the act(s) of management.
Nursing management is performing leadership functions of governance and decision-making within organizations employing nurses. It includes processes common to all management like planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling. A good nurse manager should be open to anything in the environment and be sensitive to the needs of the staff under her/his management.
It is common for RNs to seek additional education to earn a Master of Science in Nursing or Doctor of Nursing Science to prepare for leadership roles within nursing. Management positions increasingly require candidates to hold an advanced degree in nursing.
Theories of management
Terror management theory (TMT) is a developing area of study within the academic study of psychology. It looks at what researchers claim to be the implicit emotional reactions of people when confronted with the psychological terror of knowing we will eventually die (some believe that awareness of mortality is a trait that is unique to humans). Empirical support for TMT has originated from more than 175 published experiments which have been conducted cross-culturally both nationally and internationally (Solomon, 2004).
The theory was first developed in the late 1980s by Skidmore College psychology professor Sheldon Solomon, University of Arizona psychology professor Jeff Greenberg, and Colorado University at Colorado Springs psychology professor Tom Pyszczynski, who were graduate students at the University of Kansas at the time. The trio were inspired by the theories of Ernest Becker (The Denial of Death, 1973), Otto Rank and Freud, on how potent reminders of one's own ultimate death often provoke a belief in some form of mystical transcendence (heaven, reincarnation, spiritualism, etc.) Terror management theory attempts to provide a rationale for the motivational catalysts of human behavior when life is threatened.
The theory builds from the assumption that the capability of self-reflection and the consciousness of one’s own mortality can be regarded as a continuous source for existential anguish. This "irresolvable paradox" is created from the desire to preserve life and the realization of that impossibility (because life is finite).
Humans are aware of the inevitability of their own death. Culture diminishes this psychological terror by providing meaning, organization and continuity to people's lives. Compliance with cultural values enhances one's feeling of security and self-esteem, provided that the individual is capable of living in accordance with whatever particular cultural standards apply to him or her. The belief in the rightness of the cultural values and standards creates the conviction necessary to live a reasonable and meaningful life. This cultural worldview provides a base of making sense of the world as stable and orderly, a place where one rests their hopes on symbolic immortality (e.g., fame, having children, legacies of wealth or fortune) or literal immortality (e.g., the promise of a life in an afterworld).
Scientific management (also called Taylorism or the Taylor system) is a theory of management that analyzes and synthesizes workflows, with the objective of improving labour productivity. The core ideas of the theory were developed by Frederick Winslow Taylor in the 1880s and 1890s, and were first published in his monographs, Shop Management (1905) and The Principles of Scientific Management (1911).[1] Taylor believed that decisions based upon tradition and rules of thumb should be replaced by precise procedures developed after careful study of an individual at work. Its application is contingent on a high level of managerial control over employee work practices.
Taylorism is a variation on the theme of efficiency; it is a late-19th-and-early-20th-century instance of the larger recurring theme in human life of increasing efficiency, decreasing waste, and using empirical methods to decide what matters, rather than uncritically accepting pre-existing ideas of what matters. Thus it is a chapter in the larger narrative that also includes, for example, the folk wisdom of thrift, time and motion study, Fordism, and lean manufacturing. It overlapped considerably with the Efficiency Movement, which was the broader cultural echo of scientific management's impact on business managers specifically.
Theory Z is the name applied to two competing management theories. One was developed by Abraham H. Maslow in his book Maslow on Management and the other is Dr. William Ouchi's so-called "Japanese Management" style popularized during the Asian economic boom of the 1980s.[1] In contrast Theory X, which stated that workers inherently dislike and avoid work and must be driven to it, and Theory Y, which stated that work is natural and can be a source of satisfaction when aimed at higher order human psychological needs, Theory Z focused on increasing employee loyalty to the company by providing a job for life with a strong focus on the well-being of the employee, both on and off the job. According to Ouchi, Theory Z management tends to promote stable employment, high productivity, and high employee morale and satisfaction.
Ironically, "Japanese Management" and Theory Z itself were based on Dr. W. Edwards Deming's famous "14 points". Deming, an American scholar whose management and motivation theories were rejected in the United States, went on to help lay the foundation of Japanese organizational development during their expansion in the world economy in the 1980s. Deming's theories are summarized in his two books, Out of the Crisis and The New Economics, in which he spells out his "System of Profound Knowledge". He was a frequent advisor to Japanese business and government leaders, and eventually became a revered counselor. Deming was awarded the Second Order of the Sacred Treasure by the former Emperor Hirohito, and American businesses ultimately tried unsuccessfully to use his "Japanese" approach to improve their competitive position.
Boreout is a management theory that posits that lack of work, boredom, and consequent lack of satisfaction are a common malaise affecting individuals working in modern organizations, especially in office-based white collar jobs. This theory was first expounded in Diagnosis Boreout, a book by Peter Werder and Philippe Rothlin, two Swiss business consultants.
An absence of meaningful tasks, rather than stress, is the crucial problem for many workers according to Werder and Rothlin. Boreout consists of three elements: boredom, lack of challenge and disinterest. The authors disagree with the common perceptions that a demotivated employee is lazy; instead, they claim that the employee has lost interest in work tasks. Those suffering from boreout are ‘dissatisfied with their professional situation’.[1] They are frustrated by being unable to either contribute to the development of the company or use their skills, knowledge and abilities, or get recognised for their efforts.
Self-Regulation Theory or SRT is a system of conscious personal health management. Although a doctor may give a patient sound medical advice, the theory states that only with self-regulation will the patient appropriately implement that advice. For medical treatment to be effective, the patient needs to be interested in improving one's own health.
SRT consists of several stages. First, the patient deliberately monitors one's own behavior, and evaluates how this behavior affects one's health. If the desired effect is not realized, the patient changes personal behavior. If the desired effect is realized, the patient reinforces the effect by continuing the behavior. (Kanfer 1970;1971;1980)
Another approach is for the patient to realize a personal health issue and understand the factors involved in that issue. The patient must decide upon an action plan for resolving the health issue. The patient will need to deliberately monitor the results in order to appraise the effects, checking for any necessary changes in the action plan. (Leventhal & Nerenz 1984)
Anxiety/Uncertainty Management (AUM) is a theory developed by Dr. William B. Gudykunst in an attempt to define what makes up effective communication. Gudykunst’s research began in 1985 using existing theories as a starting point. Specifically, the existing research of Uncertainty reduction theory (URT) done by Berger and Calabrese (1974) provided the framework for Gudykunst to take the next steps. Like most theories on communication, AUM has undergone several modifications over the years as new research comes to light.
Development of Anxiety/Uncertainty Management as a Theory
Gudykunst’s first model of Anxiety/Uncertainty management theory was a fusion of the aforementioned URT and Tajfel’s Social Identity Theory, (1978) with a focus on intergroup communication. In 1988 Gudykunst paralleled his research slightly to attempt to explain intercultural adaptation as a result of uncertainty reduction. This version contained 24 axioms and incorporated the works of Stephan and Stephan on anxiety. The key conceptual difference between these two concepts explored by Gudykunst and the existing theory of URT was the intended outcome of the research. The outcome of URT is simply to reduce anxiety and uncertainty. Gudykunst’s intended outcome was for effective communication and cultural adaptation and not solely the reduction of anxiety. The inherent difference is that managing anxiety is to maintain it between minimum and maximum thresholds along a spectrum while reducing anxiety is unidirectional. This realization, along with the introduction of mindfulness as a factor of effective communication, led Gudykunst to finally designate an appropriate name for his research: Anxiety Uncertainty Management Theory (AUM).
The purpose of the first iteration of AUM was to be a practical application with a high degree of utility. The format of AUM includes numerous axioms, which in turn converge on one another moving in the direction of effective communication. (See Figure X). The specific number of axioms has varied over the last fifteen years according to updated research in the field of cross-cultural communication.
Managerial Roles
(Chris van Overveen - Senior Consultant Trimitra Consultants)
To meet the many demands of performing their functions, managers assume multiple roles. A role is an organized set of behaviors. Henry Mintzberg has identified ten roles common to the work of all managers. The ten roles are divided into three groups: interpersonal, informational, and decisional.
The informational roles link all managerial work together. The interpersonal roles ensure that information is provided. The decisional roles make significant use of the information.
The performance of managerial roles and the requirements of these roles can be played at different times by the same manager and to different degrees depending on the level and function of management. The ten roles are described individually, but they form an integrated whole.
The three interpersonal roles are primarily concerned with interpersonal relationships.
In the figurehead role, the manager represents the organization in all matters of formality. The top level manager represents the company legally and socially to those outside of the organization. The supervisor represents the work group to higher management and higher management to the work group.
In the liaison role, the manger interacts with peers and people outside the organization. The top level manager uses the liaison role to gain favors and information, while the supervisor uses it to maintain the routine flow of work.
The leader role defines the relationships between the manger and employees.
The direct relationships with people in the interpersonal roles place the manager in a unique position to get information.
Thus, the three informational roles are primarily concerned with the information aspects of managerial work. In the monitor role, the manager receives and collects information. In the role of disseminator, the manager transmits special information into the organization. The top level manager receives and transmits more information from people outside the organization than the supervisor.
In the role of spokesperson, the manager disseminates the organization's information into its environment. Thus, the top level manager is seen as an industry expert, while the supervisor is seen as a unit or departmental expert.
The unique access to information places the manager at the center of organizational decision making.
There are four decisional roles. In the entrepreneur role, the manager initiates change. In the disturbance handler role, the manger deals with threats to the organization. In the resource allocator role, the manager chooses where the organization will expend its efforts. In the negotiator role, the manager negotiates on behalf of the organization. The top level manager makes the decisions about the organization as a whole, while the supervisor makes decisions about his or her particular work unit.
The supervior performs these managerial roles but with different emphasis than higher managers. Supervisory management is more focused and short-term in outlook.
Thus, the figurehead role becomes less significant and the disturbance handler and negotiator roles increase in importance for the supervisor.
Since leadership permeates all activities, the leader role is among the most important of all roles at all levels of management.
The Principles of management [edit]
Management principles are statements of fundamental truth. These principles serve as guidelines for decisions and actions of managers. They are derived through observation and analysis of events which managers have to face in practice.
1. Division of Work -
The specialization of the workforce, creating specific personal and professional development within the labour force and therefore increasing productivity; leads to specialization which increases the efficiency of labour. By separating a small part of work, the workers speed and accuracy in its performance increases. This principle is applicable to both technical as well as managerial work.
2. Authority and Responsibility-
The issue of commands followed by responsibility for their consequences. Authority means the right of a superior to give order to his subordinates; responsibility means obligation for performance. This principle suggests that there must be parity between authority and responsibilty.. They are co-existent and go together, and are two sides of the same coin.
3. Discipline-
Discipline refers to obedience, proper conduct in relation to others, respect of authority, etc. It is essential for the smooth functioning of all organizations.
4. Unity of Command -
This principle states that every subordinate should receive orders and be accountable to one and only one superior. If an employee receives orders from more than one superior, it is likely to create confusion and conflict.
Unity of Command also makes it easier to fix responsibility for mistakes.
5. Unity of Direction -
All those working in the same line of activity must understand and pursue the same objectives. All related activities should be put under one group, there should be one plan of action for them, and they should be under the control of one manager.
It seeks to ensure unity of action, focusing of efforts and coordination of strength.
6. Subordination of Individual Interest
The management must put aside personal considerations and put company objectives first. Therefore the interests of goals of the organization must prevail over the personal interests of individuals.
7. Remuneration -
Workers must be paid sufficiently as this is a chief motivation of employees and therefore greatly influences productivity. The quantum and methods of remuneration payable should be fair, reasonable and rewarding of effort.
8. The Degree of Centralization -
The amount of power wielded with the central management depends on company size. Centralization implies the concentration of decision making authority at the top management. Sharing of authority with lower levels is called decentralization. The organization should strive to achieve a proper balance.
9. Scalar Chain -
Scalar Chain refers to the chain of superiors ranging from top management to the lowest rank. The principle suggests that there should be a clear line of authority from top to bottom linking all managers at all levels. It is considered a chain of command. It involves a concept called a "gang plank" using which a subordinate may contact a superior or his superior in case of an emergency,defying the hierarchy of control.However the imediate superiors must be informed about the matter
10. Order -
Social order ensures the fluid operation of a company through authoritative procedure. Material order ensures safety and efficiency in the workplace.
11. Equity -
Employees must be treated kindly, and justice must be enacted to ensure a just workplace. Managers should be fair and impartial when dealing with employees.
12. Stability of Tenure of Personnel -
The period of service should not be too short and employees should not be moved from positions frequently. An employee cannot render useful service if he is removed before he becomes accustomed to the work assigned to him.
13. Initiative -
Using the initiative of employees can add strength and new ideas to an organization. Initiative on the part of employees is a source of strength for the organization because it provides new and better ideas. Employees are likely to take greater interest in the functioning of the organization.
14. Esprit de Corps -
This refers to the need of managers to ensure and develop morale in the workplace; individually and communally. Team spirit helps develop an atmosphere of mutual trust and understanding.
These can be used to initiate and aid the processes of change, organization, decision making, skill management and the overall view of the management function.
Fayol also divided the management function into five key roles:
• To organise
• To plan and forecast (Prevoyance)
• To command
• To control
• To coordinate
Management comprises planning, organizing, staffing, leading or directing, and controlling an organization (a group of one or more people or entities) or effort for the purpose of accomplishing a goal. Resourcing encompasses the deployment and manipulation of human resources, financial resources, technological resources, and natural resources.
Management can also refer to the person or people who perform the act(s) of management.
Nursing management is performing leadership functions of governance and decision-making within organizations employing nurses. It includes processes common to all management like planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling. A good nurse manager should be open to anything in the environment and be sensitive to the needs of the staff under her/his management.
It is common for RNs to seek additional education to earn a Master of Science in Nursing or Doctor of Nursing Science to prepare for leadership roles within nursing. Management positions increasingly require candidates to hold an advanced degree in nursing.
Theories of management
Terror management theory (TMT) is a developing area of study within the academic study of psychology. It looks at what researchers claim to be the implicit emotional reactions of people when confronted with the psychological terror of knowing we will eventually die (some believe that awareness of mortality is a trait that is unique to humans). Empirical support for TMT has originated from more than 175 published experiments which have been conducted cross-culturally both nationally and internationally (Solomon, 2004).
The theory was first developed in the late 1980s by Skidmore College psychology professor Sheldon Solomon, University of Arizona psychology professor Jeff Greenberg, and Colorado University at Colorado Springs psychology professor Tom Pyszczynski, who were graduate students at the University of Kansas at the time. The trio were inspired by the theories of Ernest Becker (The Denial of Death, 1973), Otto Rank and Freud, on how potent reminders of one's own ultimate death often provoke a belief in some form of mystical transcendence (heaven, reincarnation, spiritualism, etc.) Terror management theory attempts to provide a rationale for the motivational catalysts of human behavior when life is threatened.
The theory builds from the assumption that the capability of self-reflection and the consciousness of one’s own mortality can be regarded as a continuous source for existential anguish. This "irresolvable paradox" is created from the desire to preserve life and the realization of that impossibility (because life is finite).
Humans are aware of the inevitability of their own death. Culture diminishes this psychological terror by providing meaning, organization and continuity to people's lives. Compliance with cultural values enhances one's feeling of security and self-esteem, provided that the individual is capable of living in accordance with whatever particular cultural standards apply to him or her. The belief in the rightness of the cultural values and standards creates the conviction necessary to live a reasonable and meaningful life. This cultural worldview provides a base of making sense of the world as stable and orderly, a place where one rests their hopes on symbolic immortality (e.g., fame, having children, legacies of wealth or fortune) or literal immortality (e.g., the promise of a life in an afterworld).
Scientific management (also called Taylorism or the Taylor system) is a theory of management that analyzes and synthesizes workflows, with the objective of improving labour productivity. The core ideas of the theory were developed by Frederick Winslow Taylor in the 1880s and 1890s, and were first published in his monographs, Shop Management (1905) and The Principles of Scientific Management (1911).[1] Taylor believed that decisions based upon tradition and rules of thumb should be replaced by precise procedures developed after careful study of an individual at work. Its application is contingent on a high level of managerial control over employee work practices.
Taylorism is a variation on the theme of efficiency; it is a late-19th-and-early-20th-century instance of the larger recurring theme in human life of increasing efficiency, decreasing waste, and using empirical methods to decide what matters, rather than uncritically accepting pre-existing ideas of what matters. Thus it is a chapter in the larger narrative that also includes, for example, the folk wisdom of thrift, time and motion study, Fordism, and lean manufacturing. It overlapped considerably with the Efficiency Movement, which was the broader cultural echo of scientific management's impact on business managers specifically.
Theory Z is the name applied to two competing management theories. One was developed by Abraham H. Maslow in his book Maslow on Management and the other is Dr. William Ouchi's so-called "Japanese Management" style popularized during the Asian economic boom of the 1980s.[1] In contrast Theory X, which stated that workers inherently dislike and avoid work and must be driven to it, and Theory Y, which stated that work is natural and can be a source of satisfaction when aimed at higher order human psychological needs, Theory Z focused on increasing employee loyalty to the company by providing a job for life with a strong focus on the well-being of the employee, both on and off the job. According to Ouchi, Theory Z management tends to promote stable employment, high productivity, and high employee morale and satisfaction.
Ironically, "Japanese Management" and Theory Z itself were based on Dr. W. Edwards Deming's famous "14 points". Deming, an American scholar whose management and motivation theories were rejected in the United States, went on to help lay the foundation of Japanese organizational development during their expansion in the world economy in the 1980s. Deming's theories are summarized in his two books, Out of the Crisis and The New Economics, in which he spells out his "System of Profound Knowledge". He was a frequent advisor to Japanese business and government leaders, and eventually became a revered counselor. Deming was awarded the Second Order of the Sacred Treasure by the former Emperor Hirohito, and American businesses ultimately tried unsuccessfully to use his "Japanese" approach to improve their competitive position.
Boreout is a management theory that posits that lack of work, boredom, and consequent lack of satisfaction are a common malaise affecting individuals working in modern organizations, especially in office-based white collar jobs. This theory was first expounded in Diagnosis Boreout, a book by Peter Werder and Philippe Rothlin, two Swiss business consultants.
An absence of meaningful tasks, rather than stress, is the crucial problem for many workers according to Werder and Rothlin. Boreout consists of three elements: boredom, lack of challenge and disinterest. The authors disagree with the common perceptions that a demotivated employee is lazy; instead, they claim that the employee has lost interest in work tasks. Those suffering from boreout are ‘dissatisfied with their professional situation’.[1] They are frustrated by being unable to either contribute to the development of the company or use their skills, knowledge and abilities, or get recognised for their efforts.
Self-Regulation Theory or SRT is a system of conscious personal health management. Although a doctor may give a patient sound medical advice, the theory states that only with self-regulation will the patient appropriately implement that advice. For medical treatment to be effective, the patient needs to be interested in improving one's own health.
SRT consists of several stages. First, the patient deliberately monitors one's own behavior, and evaluates how this behavior affects one's health. If the desired effect is not realized, the patient changes personal behavior. If the desired effect is realized, the patient reinforces the effect by continuing the behavior. (Kanfer 1970;1971;1980)
Another approach is for the patient to realize a personal health issue and understand the factors involved in that issue. The patient must decide upon an action plan for resolving the health issue. The patient will need to deliberately monitor the results in order to appraise the effects, checking for any necessary changes in the action plan. (Leventhal & Nerenz 1984)
Anxiety/Uncertainty Management (AUM) is a theory developed by Dr. William B. Gudykunst in an attempt to define what makes up effective communication. Gudykunst’s research began in 1985 using existing theories as a starting point. Specifically, the existing research of Uncertainty reduction theory (URT) done by Berger and Calabrese (1974) provided the framework for Gudykunst to take the next steps. Like most theories on communication, AUM has undergone several modifications over the years as new research comes to light.
Development of Anxiety/Uncertainty Management as a Theory
Gudykunst’s first model of Anxiety/Uncertainty management theory was a fusion of the aforementioned URT and Tajfel’s Social Identity Theory, (1978) with a focus on intergroup communication. In 1988 Gudykunst paralleled his research slightly to attempt to explain intercultural adaptation as a result of uncertainty reduction. This version contained 24 axioms and incorporated the works of Stephan and Stephan on anxiety. The key conceptual difference between these two concepts explored by Gudykunst and the existing theory of URT was the intended outcome of the research. The outcome of URT is simply to reduce anxiety and uncertainty. Gudykunst’s intended outcome was for effective communication and cultural adaptation and not solely the reduction of anxiety. The inherent difference is that managing anxiety is to maintain it between minimum and maximum thresholds along a spectrum while reducing anxiety is unidirectional. This realization, along with the introduction of mindfulness as a factor of effective communication, led Gudykunst to finally designate an appropriate name for his research: Anxiety Uncertainty Management Theory (AUM).
The purpose of the first iteration of AUM was to be a practical application with a high degree of utility. The format of AUM includes numerous axioms, which in turn converge on one another moving in the direction of effective communication. (See Figure X). The specific number of axioms has varied over the last fifteen years according to updated research in the field of cross-cultural communication.
Sunday, June 21, 2009
Masteral:Leadership style
Leadership has been described as the “process of social influence in which one person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task”.[1] A definition more inclusive of followers comes from Alan Keith of Genentech who said "Leadership is ultimately about creating a way for people to contribute to making something extraordinary happen."[2]
According to Jules Masserman, United States psychoanalyst and professor of the Chicago University, Leaders must fulfill three functions~~ The Leader must provide for the well-being of the lead. The leader or would be leader must provide a social organization in which people feel relatively secure and that this leader must provide his people with one set of beliefs.
Leadership is one of the most salient aspects of the organizational context. However, defining leadership has been challenging. The following sections discuss several important aspects of leadership including a description of what leadership is and a description of several popular theories and styles of leadership. This page also dives into topics such as the role of emotions and vision, as well leadership effectiveness and performance. Finally, this page discusses leadership in different contexts, how it may differ from related concepts (i.e., management), and some critiques that have been raised about leadership.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Theories of leadership
o 1.1 Trait theory
1.1.1 Criticism to trait theory
o 1.2 Behavioral and style theories
o 1.3 Situational and contingency theories
o 1.4 Functional theory
o 1.5 Transactional and transformational theories
o 1.6 Leadership and emotions
• 2 Leadership performance
• 3 Contexts of leadership
o 3.1 Leadership in organizations
o 3.2 Leadership versus management
o 3.3 Leadership by a group
o 3.4 Leadership among primates
• 4 Historical views on leadership
• 5 Action Orientated Team Leadership Skills
• 6 Titles emphasizing authority
• 7 Criticism of the concept of leadership
• 8 See also
• 9 References
• 10 External links
[edit] Theories of leadership
Students of leadership have produced theories involving traits [3], situational interaction, function, behavior, power, vision and values [4], charisma, and intelligence among others.
[edit] Trait theory
Trait theory tries to describe the types of behavior and personality tendencies associated with effective leadership. This is probably the first academic theory of leadership. Thomas Carlyle (1841) can be considered one of the pioneers of the trait theory, using such approach to identify the talents, skills and physical characteristics of men who arose to power. [5] Ronald Heifetz (1994) traces the trait theory approach back to the nineteenth-century tradition of associating the history of society to the history of great men.[6] Famous quote by Napoleon Bonaparte states that a leader is a dealer in hope.
Proponents of the trait approach usually list leadership qualities, assuming certain traits or characteristics will tend to lead to effective leadership. Shelley Kirkpatrick and Edwin A. Locke (1991) exemplify the trait theory. They argue that "key leader traits include: drive (a broad term which includes achievement, motivation, ambition, energy, tenacity, and initiative), leadership motivation (the desire to lead but not to seek power as an end in itself), honesty, integrity, self-confidence (which is associated with emotional stability), cognitive ability, and knowledge of the business. According to their research, "there is less clear evidence for traits such as charisma, creativity and flexibility".[3]
[edit] Criticism to trait theory
Although trait theory has an intuitive appeal, difficulties may arise in proving its tenets, and opponents frequently challenge this approach. The "strongest" versions of trait theory see these "leadership characteristics" as innate, and accordingly labels some people as "born leaders" due to their psychological makeup. On this reading of the theory, leadership development involves identifying and measuring leadership qualities, screening potential leaders from non-leaders, then training those with potential.[citation needed]
[edit] Behavioral and style theories
Main article: Managerial grid model
In response to the criticism of the trait approach, theorists began to research leadership as a set of behaviors, evaluating the behavior of 'successful' leaders, determining a behavior taxonomy and identifying broad leadership styles.[7] David McClelland, for example, saw leadership skills, not so much as a set of traits, but as a pattern of motives. He claimed that successful leaders will tend to have a high need for power, a low need for affiliation, and a high level of what he called activity inhibition (one might call it self-control).[citation needed]
A graphical representation of the managerial grid model
Kurt Lewin, Ronald Lipitt, and Ralph White developed in 1939 the seminal work on the influence of leadership styles and performance. The researchers evaluated the performance of groups of eleven-year-old boys under different types of work climate. In each, the leader exercised his influence regarding the type of group decision making, praise and criticism (feedback), and the management of the group tasks (project management) according to three styles: (1) authoritarian, (2) democratic and (3) laissez-faire.[8] Authoritarian climates were characterized by leaders who make decisions alone, demand strict compliance to his orders, and dictate each step taken; future steps were uncertain to a large degree. The leader is not necessarily hostile but is aloof from participation in work and commonly offers personal praise and criticism for the work done. Democratic climates were characterized by collective decision processes, assisted by the leader. Before accomplishing tasks, perspectives are gained from group discussion and technical advice from a leader. Members are given choices and collectively decide the division of labor. Praise and criticism in such an environment are objective, fact minded and given by a group member without necessarily having participated extensively in the actual work. Laissez faire climates gave freedom to the group for policy determination without any participation from the leader. The leader remains uninvolved in work decisions unless asked, does not participate in the division of labor, and very infrequently gives praise. [8] The results seemed to confirm that the democratic climate was preferred.[9]
The managerial grid model is also based on a behavioral theory. The model was developed by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton in 1964 and suggests five different leadership styles, based on the leaders' concern for people and their concern for goal achievement.[10]
[edit] Situational and contingency theories
Main articles: Fiedler contingency model, Vroom-Yetton decision model, Path-goal theory, and Hersey-Blanchard situational theory
Situational theory also appeared as a reaction to the trait theory of leadership. Social scientists argued that history was more than the result of intervention of great men as Carlyle suggested. Herbert Spencer (1884) said that the times produce the person and not the other way around.[11] This theory assumes that different situations call for different characteristics; according to this group of theories, no single optimal psychographic profile of a leader exists. According to the theory, "what an individual actually does when acting as a leader is in large part dependent upon characteristics of the situation in which he functions."[12]
Some theorists started to synthesize the trait and situational approaches. Building upon the research of Lewin et al., academics began to normatize the descriptive models of leadership climates, defining three leadership styles and identifying in which situations each style works better. The authoritarian leadership style, for example, is approved in periods of crisis but fails to win the "hearts and minds" of their followers in the day-to-day management; the democratic leadership style is more adequate in situations that require consensus building; finally, the laissez faire leadership style is appreciated by the degree of freedom it provides, but as the leader does not "take charge", he can be perceived as a failure in protracted or thorny organizational problems.[13] Thus, theorists defined the style of leadership as contingent to the situation, which is sometimes classified as contingency theory. Four contingency leadership theories appear more prominently in the recent years: Fiedler contingency model, Vroom-Yetton decision model, the path-goal theory, and the Hersey-Blanchard situational theory.
The Fiedler contingency model bases the leader’s effectiveness on what Fred Fiedler called situational contingency. This results from the interaction of leadership style and situational favorableness (later called "situational control"). The theory defined two types of leader: those who tend to accomplish the task by developing good-relationships with the group (relationship-oriented), and those who have as their prime concern carrying out the task itself (task-oriented).[14] According to Fiedler, there is no ideal leader. Both task-oriented and relationship-oriented leaders can be effective if their leadership orientation fits the situation. When there is a good leader-member relation, a highly structured task, and high leader position power, the situation is considered a "favorable situation". Fiedler found that task-oriented leaders are more effective in extremely favourable or unfavourable situations, whereas relationship-oriented leaders perform best in situations with intermediate favourability.
Victor Vroom, in collaboration with Phillip Yetton (1973)[15] and later with Arthur Jago (1988),[16] developed a taxonomy for describing leadership situations, taxonomy that was used in a normative decision model where leadership styles where connected to situational variables, defining which approach was more suitable to which situation.[17] This approach was novel because it supported the idea that the same manager could rely on different group decision making approaches depending on the attributes of each situation. This model was later referred as situational contingency theory.[18]
The path-goal theory of leadership was developed by Robert House (1971) and was based on the expectancy theory of Victor Vroom.[19] According to House, the essence of the theory is "the meta proposition that leaders, to be effective, engage in behaviors that complement subordinates' environments and abilities in a manner that compensates for deficiencies and is instrumental to subordinate satisfaction and individual and work unit performance.[20] The theory identifies four leader behaviors, achievement-oriented, directive, participative, and supportive, that are contingent to the environment factors and follower characteristics. In contrast to the Fiedler contingency model, the path-goal model states that the four leadership behaviors are fluid, and that leaders can adopt any of the four depending on what the situation demands. The path-goal model can be classified both as a contingency theory, as it depends on the circumstances, but also as a transactional leadership theory, as the theory emphasizes the reciprocity behavior between the leader and the followers.
The situational leadership model proposed by Hersey and Blanchard suggests four leadership-styles and four levels of follower-development. For effectiveness, the model posits that the leadership-style must match the appropriate level of followership-development. In this model, leadership behavior becomes a function not only of the characteristics of the leader, but of the characteristics of followers as well.[21]
[edit] Functional theory
Main article: Functional leadership model
Functional leadership theory (Hackman & Walton, 1986; McGrath, 1962) is a particularly useful theory for addressing specific leader behaviors expected to contribute to organizational or unit effectiveness. This theory argues that the leader’s main job is to see that whatever is necessary to group needs is taken care of; thus, a leader can be said to have done their job well when they have contributed to group effectiveness and cohesion (Fleishman et al., 1991; Hackman & Wageman, 2005; Hackman & Walton, 1986). While functional leadership theory has most often been applied to team leadership (Zaccaro, Rittman, & Marks, 2001), it has also been effectively applied to broader organizational leadership as well (Zaccaro, 2001). In summarizing literature on functional leadership (see Kozlowski et al. (1996), Zaccaro et al. (2001), Hackman and Walton (1986), Hackman & Wageman (2005), Morgeson (2005)), Klein, Zeigert, Knight, and Xiao (2006) observed five broad functions a leader perform when promoting organisation's effectiveness. These functions include: (1) environmental monitoring, (2) organizing subordinate activities, (3) teaching and coaching subordinates, (4) motivating others, and (5) intervening actively in the group’s work.
A variety of leadership behaviors are expected to facilitate these functions. In initial work identifying leader behavior, Fleishman (Fleishman, 1953) observed that subordinates perceived their supervisors’ behavior in terms of two broad categories referred to as consideration and initiating structure. Consideration includes behavior involved in fostering effective relationships. Examples of such behavior would include showing concern for a subordinate or acting in a supportive manner towards others. Initiating structure involves the actions of the leader focused specifically on task accomplishment. This could include role clarification, setting performance standards, and holding subordinates accountable to those standards.
[edit] Transactional and transformational theories
Main articles: Transactional leadership and Transformational leadership
The transactional leader (Burns, 1978)[22] is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the team’s performance. It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else. Power is given to the leader to evaluate, correct and train subordinates when productivity is not up to the desired level and reward effectiveness when expected outcome is reached.
The transformational leader (Burns, 2008)[22] motivates its team to be effective and efficient. Communication is the base for goal achievement focusing the group on the final desired outcome or goal attainment. This leader is highly visible and uses chain of command to get the job done. Transformational leaders focus on the big picture, needing to be surrounded by people who take care of the details. The leader is always looking for ideas that move the organization to reach the company’s vision.
[edit] Leadership and emotions
Leadership can be perceived as a particularly emotion-laden process, with emotions entwined with the social influence process[23]. In an organization, the leaders’ mood has some effects on his group. These effects can be described in 3 levels[24]:
1. The mood of individual group members. Group members with leaders in a positive mood experience more positive mood than do group members with leaders in a negative mood.The leaders transmit their moods to other group members through the mechanism of emotional contagion[24].Mood contagion may be one of the psychological mechanisms by which charismatic leaders influence followers[25].
2. The affective tone of the group. Group affective tone represents the consistent or homogeneous affective reactions within a group. Group affective tone is an aggregate of the moods of the individual members of the group and refers to mood at the group level of analysis. Groups with leaders in a positive mood have a more positive affective tone than do groups with leaders in a negative mood [24].
3. Group processes like coordination, effort expenditure, and task strategy.Public expressions of mood impact how group members think and act. When people experience and express mood, they send signals to others. Leaders signal their goals, intentions, and attitudes through their expressions of moods. For example, expressions of positive moods by leaders signal that leaders deem progress toward goals to be good.The group members respond to those signals cognitively and behaviorally in ways that are reflected in the group processes [24].
In research about client service it was found that expressions of positive mood by the leader improve the performance of the group, although in other sectors there were another findings[26].
Beyond the leader’s mood, his behavior is a source for employee positive and negative emotions at work. The leader creates situations and events that lead to emotional response. Certain leader behaviors displayed during interactions with their employees are the sources of these affective events. Leaders shape workplace affective events. Examples – feedback giving, allocating tasks, resource distribution. Since employee behavior and productivity are directly affected by their emotional states, it is imperative to consider employee emotional responses to organizational leaders[27]. Emotional intelligence, the ability to understand and manage moods and emotions in the self and others, contributes to effective leadership in organizations[26]. Leadership is about being responsible.
[edit] Leadership performance
Main article: Leadership Performance
In the past, some researchers have argued that the actual influence of leaders on organizational outcomes is overrated and romanticized as a result of biased attributions about leaders (Meindl & Ehrlich, 1987). Despite these assertions however, it is largely recognized and accepted by practitioners and researchers that leadership is important, and research supports the notion that leaders do contribute to key organizational outcomes (Day & Lord, 1988; Kaiser, Hogan, & Craig, 2008). In order to facilitate successful performance it is important to understand and accurately measure leadership performance.
Job performance generally refers to behavior that is expected to contribute to organizational success (Campbell, 1990). Campbell identified a number of specific types of performance dimensions; leadership was one of the dimensions that he identified. There is no consistent, overall definition of leadership performance (Yukl, 2006). Many distinct conceptualizations are often lumped together under the umbrella of leadership performance, including outcomes such as leader effectiveness, leader advancement, and leader emergence (Kaiser et al., 2008). For instance, leadership performance may be used to refer to the career success of the individual leader, performance of the group or organization, or even leader emergence. Each of these measures can be considered conceptually distinct. While these aspects may be related, they are different outcomes and their inclusion should depend on the applied/research focus.
[edit] Contexts of leadership
[edit] Leadership in organizations
An organization that is established as an instrument or means for achieving defined objectives has been referred to as a formal organization. Its design specifies how goals are subdivided and reflected in subdivisions of the organization. Divisions, departments, sections, positions, jobs, and tasks make up this work structure. Thus, the formal organization is expected to behave impersonally in regard to relationships with clients or with its members. According to Weber's definition, entry and subsequent advancement is by merit or seniority. Each employee receives a salary and enjoys a degree of tenure that safeguards him from the arbitrary influence of superiors or of powerful clients. The higher his position in the hierarchy, the greater his presumed expertise in adjudicating problems that may arise in the course of the work carried out at lower levels of the organization. It is this bureaucratic structure that forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position. [28]
In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit, a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure. The informal organization expresses the personal objectives and goals of the individual membership. Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization. The informal organization represents an extension of the social structures that generally characterize human life — the spontaneous emergence of groups and organizations as ends in themselves.
In prehistoric times, man was preoccupied with his personal security, maintenance, protection, and survival. Now man spends a major portion of his waking hours working for organizations. His need to identify with a community that provides security, protection, maintenance, and a feeling of belonging continues unchanged from prehistoric times. This need is met by the informal organization and its emergent, or unofficial, leaders.[29]
Leaders emerge from within the structure of the informal organization. Their personal qualities, the demands of the situation, or a combination of these and other factors attract followers who accept their leadership within one or several overlay structures. Instead of the authority of position held by an appointed head or chief, the emergent leader wields influence or power. Influence is the ability of a person to gain co-operation from others by means of persuasion or control over rewards. Power is a stronger form of influence because it reflects a person's ability to enforce action through the control of a means of punishment.[29]
A leader is a person who influences a group of people towards a specific result. It is not dependent on title or formal authority. (elevos, paraphrased from Leaders, Bennis, and Leadership Presence, Halpern & Lubar). Leaders are recognized by their capacity for caring for others, clear communication, and a commitment to persist. [30] An individual who is appointed to a managerial position has the right to command and enforce obedience by virtue of the authority of his position. However, he must possess adequate personal attributes to match his authority, because authority is only potentially available to him. In the absence of sufficient personal competence, a manager may be confronted by an emergent leader who can challenge his role in the organization and reduce it to that of a figurehead. However, only authority of position has the backing of formal sanctions. It follows that whoever wields personal influence and power can legitimize this only by gaining a formal position in the hierarchy, with commensurate authority.[29] Leadership can be defined as one's ability to get others to willingly follow. Every organization needs leaders at every level.[31]
[edit] Leadership versus management
Over the years the terms management and leadership have been so closely related that individuals in general think of them as synonymous. However, this is not the case even considering that good managers have leadership skills and vice-versa. With this concept in mind, leadership can be viewed as:
• centralized or decentralized
• broad or focused
• decision-oriented or morale-centred
• intrinsic or derived from some authority
Any of the bipolar labels traditionally ascribed to management style could also apply to leadership style. Hersey and Blanchard use this approach: they claim that management merely consists of leadership applied to business situations; or in other words management forms a subset of the broader leadership process. They say: "Leadership occurs any time one attempts to influence the behavior of an individual or group, regardless of the reason. Management is a kind of leadership in which the achievement of organizational goals is paramount." And according to Warren Bennis and Dan Goldsmith, A good manager does things right. A leader does the right things."[32]
However, a clear distinction between management and leadership may nevertheless prove useful. This would allow for a reciprocal relationship between leadership and management, implying that an effective manager should possess leadership skills, and an effective leader should demonstrate management skills. One clear distinction could provide the following definition:
• Management involves power by position.
• Leadership involves power by influence.
Abraham Zaleznik (1977), for example, delineated differences between leadership and management. He saw leaders as inspiring visionaries concerned about substance while managers he views as planners who have concerns with process. Warren Bennis (1989) further explicated a dichotomy between managers and leaders. He drew twelve distinctions between the two groups:
• Managers administer; leaders innovate.
• Managers ask how and when; leaders ask what and why.
• Managers focus on systems; leaders focus on people.
• Managers do things right; leaders do the right things.
• Managers maintain; leaders develop.
• Managers rely on control; leaders inspire trust.
• Managers have short-term perspective; leaders have long-term perspective.
• Managers accept the status-quo; leaders challenge the status-quo.
• Managers have an eye on the bottom line; leaders have an eye on the horizon.
• Managers imitate; leaders originate.
• Managers emulate the classic good soldier; leaders are their own person.
• Managers copy; leaders show originality.
Paul Birch (1999) also sees a distinction between leadership and management. He observed that, as a broad generalization, managers concerned themselves with tasks while leaders concerned themselves with people. Birch does not suggest that leaders do not focus on "the task." Indeed, the things that characterise a great leader include the fact that they achieve. Effective leaders create and sustain competitive advantage through the attainment of cost leadership, revenue leadership, time leadership, and market value leadership. Managers typically follow and realize a leader's vision. The difference lies in the leader realising that the achievement of the task comes about through the goodwill and support of others (influence), while the manager may not.
This goodwill and support originates in the leader seeing people as people, not as another resource for deployment in support of "the task". The manager often has the role of organizing resources to get something done. People form one of these resources, and many of the worst managers treat people as just another interchangeable item. A leader has the role of causing others to follow a path he/she has laid out or a vision he/she has articulated in order to achieve a task. Often, people see the task as subordinate to the vision. For instance, an organization might have the overall task of generating profit, but a good leader may see profit as a by-product that flows from whatever aspect of their vision differentiates their company from the competition.
Leadership does not only manifest itself as purely a business phenomenon. Many people can think of an inspiring leader they have encountered who has nothing whatever to do with business: a politician, an officer in the armed forces, a Scout or Guide leader, a teacher, etc. Similarly, management does not occur only as a purely business phenomenon. Again, we can think of examples of people that we have met who fill the management niche in non-business organisationsNon-business organizations should find it easier to articulate a non-money-driven inspiring vision that will support true leadership. However, often this does not occur.
Patricia Pitcher (1994) has challenged the bifurcation into leaders and managers. She used a factor analysis (in marketing) technique on data collected over 8 years, and concluded that three types of leaders exist, each with very different psychological profiles: Artists (imaginative, inspiring, visionary, entrepreneurial, intuitive, daring, and emotional), Craftsmen (well-balanced, steady, reasonable, sensible, predictable, and trustworthy), Technocrats (cerebral, detail-oriented, fastidious, uncompromising, and hard-headed). She speculates that no one profile offers a preferred leadership style. She claims that if we want to build, we should find an "artist leader" if we want to solidify our position, we should find a "craftsman leader" and if we have an ugly job that needs to get done like downsizing, we should find a "technocratic leader". Pitcher also observed that a balanced leader exhibiting all three sets of traits occurs extremely rarely: she found none in her study.
Bruce Lynn postulates a differentiation between 'Leadership' and ‘Management’ based on perspectives to risk. Specifically,"A Leader optimises upside opportunity; a Manager minimises downside risk." He argues that successful executives need to apply both disciplines in a balance appropriate to the enterprise and its context. Leadership without Management yields steps forward, but as many if not more steps backwards. Management without Leadership avoids any step backwards, but doesn’t move forward.
Leadership Styles Overview
When developing your leadership skills, one must soon confront an important practical question, "What leadership styles work best for me and my organization?" To answer this question, it's best to understand that there are many from which to choose and as part of your leadership development effort, you should consider developing as many leadership styles as possible.
Three Classic Leadership Styles
One dimension of has to do with control and one's perception of how much control one should give to people. The laissez faire style implies low control, the autocratic style high control and the participative lies somewhere in between.
The Laissez Faire Leadership Style
The style is largely a "hands off" view that tends to minimize the amount of direction and face time required. Works well if you have highly trained and highly motivated direct reports.
The Autocratic Leadership Style
The style has its advocates, but it is falling out of favor in many countries. Some people have argued that the style is popular with today's CEO's, who have much in common with feudal lords in Medieval Europe.
The Participative Leadership Style
It's hard to order and demand someone to be creative, perform as a team, solve complex problems, improve quality, and provide outstanding customer service. The style presents a happy medium between over controlling (micromanaging) and not being engaged and tends to be seen in organizations that must innovate to prosper.
Determining the Best Leadership Style
Situational Leadership. In the 1950s, management theorists from Ohio State University and the University of Michigan published a series of studies to determine whether leaders should be more task or relationship (people) oriented. The importance of the research cannot be over estimated since leaders tend to have a dominant style; a leadership style they use in a wide variety of situations.
Surprisingly, the research discovered that there is no one best style: leaders must adjust their leadership style to the situation as well as to the people being led.
The Emergent Leadership Style
Contrary to the belief of many, groups do not automatically accept a new "boss" as leader. We see a number of ineffective managers who didn't know the behaviors to use when one taking over a new group.
The Transactional Leadership Style
The approach emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo; almost in opposition to the goals of the transformational leadership. It's considered to be a "by the book" approach in which the person works within the rules. As such, it's commonly seen in large, bureaucratic organizations.
The Transformational Leadership Style
The primary focus of this leadership style is to make change happen in:
• Our Self,
• Others,
• Groups, and
• Organizations
Charisma is a special leadership style commonly associated with transformational leadership. While extremely powerful, it is extremely hard to teach.
Visionary Leadership, The leadership style focuses on how the leader defines the future for followers and moves them toward it.
From the short review above, one can see that there are many different aspects to being a great leader; a role requiring one to play many different leadership styles to be successful.
Transformational Leadership Principles
Presenter: Murray Johannsen
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Other leadership styles include:
Strategic Leadership is practiced by the military services such as the US Army, US Air Force, and many large corporations. It stresses the competitive nature of running an organization and being able to out fox and out wit the competition.
Team Leadership. A few years ago, a large corporation decided that supervisors were no longer needed and those in charge were suddenly made "team leaders." Today, companies have gotten smarter about teams, but it still takes leadership to transition a group into a team.
Facilitative Leadership. This is a special style that anyone who runs a meeting can employ. Rather than being directive, one uses a number of indirect communication patterns to help the group reach consensus.
Leadership Influence Styles. Here one looks at the behaviors associated how one exercises influence. For example, does the person mostly punish? Do they know how to reward?
Cross-Cultural Leadership. Not all individuals can adapt to the leadership styles expected in a different culture; whether that culture is organizational or national.
Coaching. A great coach is definitely a leader who also possess a unique gift--the ability to teach and train.
Level 5 Leadership. This term was coined by Jim Collins in his book Good to Great: Why Some Company’s Make the Leap and Other Don’t. As Collins says in his book, "We were surprised, shocked really, to discover the types of leadership required for turning a good company into a great one."
Servant Leadership. Some leaders have put the needs of their followers first. For example, the motto of the Los Angeles Police Department, "To Protect and Serve." reflects this philosophy of service. One
Seven Qualities of a Good Leader
By Barbara White
How often have you heard the comment, “He or she is a born leader?” There are certain characteristics found in some people that seem to naturally put them in a position where they’re looked up to as a leader.
Whether in fact a person is born a leader or develops skills and abilities to become a leader is open for debate. There are some clear characteristics that are found in good leaders. These qualities can be developed or may be naturally part of their personality. Let us explore them further.
Seven Personal Qualities Found In A Good Leader:
1. A good leader has an exemplary character. It is of utmost importance that a leader is trustworthy to lead others. A leader needs to be trusted and be known to live their life with honestly and integrity. A good leader “walks the talk” and in doing so earns the right to have responsibility for others. True authority is born from respect for the good character and trustworthiness of the person who leads.
2. A good leader is enthusiastic about their work or cause and also about their role as leader. People will respond more openly to a person of passion and dedication. Leaders need to be able to be a source of inspiration, and be a motivator towards the required action or cause. Although the responsibilities and roles of a leader may be different, the leader needs to be seen to be part of the team working towards the goal. This kind of leader will not be afraid to roll up their sleeves and get dirty.
3. A good leader is confident. In order to lead and set direction a leader needs to appear confident as a person and in the leadership role. Such a person inspires confidence in others and draws out the trust and best efforts of the team to complete the task well. A leader who conveys confidence towards the proposed objective inspires the best effort from team members.
4. A leader also needs to function in an orderly and purposeful manner in situations of uncertainty. People look to the leader during times of uncertainty and unfamiliarity and find reassurance and security when the leader portrays confidence and a positive demeanor.
5. Good leaders are tolerant of ambiguity and remain calm, composed and steadfast to the main purpose. Storms, emotions, and crises come and go and a good leader takes these as part of the journey and keeps a cool head.
6. A good leader as well as keeping the main goal in focus is able to think analytically. Not only does a good leader view a situation as a whole, but is able to break it down into sub parts for closer inspection. Not only is the goal in view but a good leader can break it down into manageable steps and make progress towards it.
7. A good leader is committed to excellence. Second best does not lead to success. The good leader not only maintains high standards, but also is proactive in raising the bar in order to achieve excellence in all areas.
These seven personal characteristics are foundational to good leadership. Some characteristics may be more naturally present in the personality of a leader. However, each of these characteristics can also be developed and strengthened. A good leader whether they naturally possess these qualities or not, will be diligent to consistently develop and strengthen them in their leadership role.
suspects these leaders are rare in business.
THE CHARACTERISTICS *
- OF A GOOD LEADER! -
• Challenges me to do my best.
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• Sets a good example.
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• Explains the reasons
for instructions & procedures.
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• Helps me polish my thoughts
before I present them to others.
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• Is objective about things.
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• Lets me make my own decisions.
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• Cares about me & how I'm doing.
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• Does not seek the limelight.
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• Won't let me give up.
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• Gives personal guidance & direction,
especially when I'm learning something new.
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• Is empathetic & understanding.
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• Is firm but fair.
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• Keeps a results orientation.
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• Makes me work out
most of my own problems or tough situations,
but supports me.
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• Lets me know where I stand.
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• Listens exceptionally well.
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• Doesn't put words in my mouth.
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• Is easy to talk with.
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• Keeps the promises s/he makes.
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• Keeps me focused on the goals ahead.
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• Works as hard or harder than anyone else.
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• Is humble.
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• Is proud of those managers s/he has developed.
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• Gives credit where credit is due.
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• Never says "I told you so."
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• Corrects my performance in private.
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• Never flaunts authority.
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• Is always straight-forward.
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• Gives at least a second chance.
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• Maintains an open door policy.
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• Uses language that is easy to understand.
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• Lets bygones be bygones.
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• Inspires loyalty.
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• Really wants to hear my ideas
& acts on them.
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• Lets me set my own deadlines.
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• Celebrates successes.
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• Is open & honest.
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• Doesn't hide bad news.
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• Gives me enough time
to prepare for discussion.
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• Is enthusiastic.
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• Follows through.
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• Is patient.
________________________________________
• Wants me to "stretch" my skills.
________________________________________
• Gives me his/her full attention
during discussions,
& won't be distracted.
________________________________________
• Has a sense of humor.
________________________________________
• Handles disagreements privately.
________________________________________
• Reassures me.
________________________________________
• Makes me feel confident.
________________________________________
• Tells me the "whole story."
________________________________________
• Says "we" instead of "I".
________________________________________
• Makes hard work worth it.
________________________________________
• Can communicate annoyance
without running wild.
________________________________________
• Is courageous.
________________________________________
• Insists on training.
________________________________________
• Is a stabilizing influence in a crisis.
________________________________________
• Gets everyone involved.
________________________________________
• Wants me to be successful.
________________________________________
• Is optimistic.
________________________________________
• Operates well under pressure,
or in a rapidly changing environment.
________________________________________
• Has a reputation for competence
with his/her own peers.
________________________________________
• Has a good understanding of the job.
________________________________________
• Is tough & tender.
________________________________________
• Believes we can do it.
________________________________________
• Sets attainable milestones.
________________________________________
• Communicates philosophy & values.
________________________________________
• Is perceptive;
doesn't believe that everything
needs to be spelled out.
________________________________________
• Has a strong sense of urgency.
________________________________________
• Preserves the individuality
of his/her team members.
________________________________________
• Thinks & operates at a level
above that expected.
________________________________________
• Wants to make the organization
the best in the industry.
________________________________________
• Is willing to act on intuition;
believes feelings are facts.
________________________________________
• Empowers us.
________________________________________
• Is there when we need her/him.
________________________________________
• Enjoys his/her job.
________________________________________
• Likes to spend time with us.
According to Jules Masserman, United States psychoanalyst and professor of the Chicago University, Leaders must fulfill three functions~~ The Leader must provide for the well-being of the lead. The leader or would be leader must provide a social organization in which people feel relatively secure and that this leader must provide his people with one set of beliefs.
Leadership is one of the most salient aspects of the organizational context. However, defining leadership has been challenging. The following sections discuss several important aspects of leadership including a description of what leadership is and a description of several popular theories and styles of leadership. This page also dives into topics such as the role of emotions and vision, as well leadership effectiveness and performance. Finally, this page discusses leadership in different contexts, how it may differ from related concepts (i.e., management), and some critiques that have been raised about leadership.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Theories of leadership
o 1.1 Trait theory
1.1.1 Criticism to trait theory
o 1.2 Behavioral and style theories
o 1.3 Situational and contingency theories
o 1.4 Functional theory
o 1.5 Transactional and transformational theories
o 1.6 Leadership and emotions
• 2 Leadership performance
• 3 Contexts of leadership
o 3.1 Leadership in organizations
o 3.2 Leadership versus management
o 3.3 Leadership by a group
o 3.4 Leadership among primates
• 4 Historical views on leadership
• 5 Action Orientated Team Leadership Skills
• 6 Titles emphasizing authority
• 7 Criticism of the concept of leadership
• 8 See also
• 9 References
• 10 External links
[edit] Theories of leadership
Students of leadership have produced theories involving traits [3], situational interaction, function, behavior, power, vision and values [4], charisma, and intelligence among others.
[edit] Trait theory
Trait theory tries to describe the types of behavior and personality tendencies associated with effective leadership. This is probably the first academic theory of leadership. Thomas Carlyle (1841) can be considered one of the pioneers of the trait theory, using such approach to identify the talents, skills and physical characteristics of men who arose to power. [5] Ronald Heifetz (1994) traces the trait theory approach back to the nineteenth-century tradition of associating the history of society to the history of great men.[6] Famous quote by Napoleon Bonaparte states that a leader is a dealer in hope.
Proponents of the trait approach usually list leadership qualities, assuming certain traits or characteristics will tend to lead to effective leadership. Shelley Kirkpatrick and Edwin A. Locke (1991) exemplify the trait theory. They argue that "key leader traits include: drive (a broad term which includes achievement, motivation, ambition, energy, tenacity, and initiative), leadership motivation (the desire to lead but not to seek power as an end in itself), honesty, integrity, self-confidence (which is associated with emotional stability), cognitive ability, and knowledge of the business. According to their research, "there is less clear evidence for traits such as charisma, creativity and flexibility".[3]
[edit] Criticism to trait theory
Although trait theory has an intuitive appeal, difficulties may arise in proving its tenets, and opponents frequently challenge this approach. The "strongest" versions of trait theory see these "leadership characteristics" as innate, and accordingly labels some people as "born leaders" due to their psychological makeup. On this reading of the theory, leadership development involves identifying and measuring leadership qualities, screening potential leaders from non-leaders, then training those with potential.[citation needed]
[edit] Behavioral and style theories
Main article: Managerial grid model
In response to the criticism of the trait approach, theorists began to research leadership as a set of behaviors, evaluating the behavior of 'successful' leaders, determining a behavior taxonomy and identifying broad leadership styles.[7] David McClelland, for example, saw leadership skills, not so much as a set of traits, but as a pattern of motives. He claimed that successful leaders will tend to have a high need for power, a low need for affiliation, and a high level of what he called activity inhibition (one might call it self-control).[citation needed]
A graphical representation of the managerial grid model
Kurt Lewin, Ronald Lipitt, and Ralph White developed in 1939 the seminal work on the influence of leadership styles and performance. The researchers evaluated the performance of groups of eleven-year-old boys under different types of work climate. In each, the leader exercised his influence regarding the type of group decision making, praise and criticism (feedback), and the management of the group tasks (project management) according to three styles: (1) authoritarian, (2) democratic and (3) laissez-faire.[8] Authoritarian climates were characterized by leaders who make decisions alone, demand strict compliance to his orders, and dictate each step taken; future steps were uncertain to a large degree. The leader is not necessarily hostile but is aloof from participation in work and commonly offers personal praise and criticism for the work done. Democratic climates were characterized by collective decision processes, assisted by the leader. Before accomplishing tasks, perspectives are gained from group discussion and technical advice from a leader. Members are given choices and collectively decide the division of labor. Praise and criticism in such an environment are objective, fact minded and given by a group member without necessarily having participated extensively in the actual work. Laissez faire climates gave freedom to the group for policy determination without any participation from the leader. The leader remains uninvolved in work decisions unless asked, does not participate in the division of labor, and very infrequently gives praise. [8] The results seemed to confirm that the democratic climate was preferred.[9]
The managerial grid model is also based on a behavioral theory. The model was developed by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton in 1964 and suggests five different leadership styles, based on the leaders' concern for people and their concern for goal achievement.[10]
[edit] Situational and contingency theories
Main articles: Fiedler contingency model, Vroom-Yetton decision model, Path-goal theory, and Hersey-Blanchard situational theory
Situational theory also appeared as a reaction to the trait theory of leadership. Social scientists argued that history was more than the result of intervention of great men as Carlyle suggested. Herbert Spencer (1884) said that the times produce the person and not the other way around.[11] This theory assumes that different situations call for different characteristics; according to this group of theories, no single optimal psychographic profile of a leader exists. According to the theory, "what an individual actually does when acting as a leader is in large part dependent upon characteristics of the situation in which he functions."[12]
Some theorists started to synthesize the trait and situational approaches. Building upon the research of Lewin et al., academics began to normatize the descriptive models of leadership climates, defining three leadership styles and identifying in which situations each style works better. The authoritarian leadership style, for example, is approved in periods of crisis but fails to win the "hearts and minds" of their followers in the day-to-day management; the democratic leadership style is more adequate in situations that require consensus building; finally, the laissez faire leadership style is appreciated by the degree of freedom it provides, but as the leader does not "take charge", he can be perceived as a failure in protracted or thorny organizational problems.[13] Thus, theorists defined the style of leadership as contingent to the situation, which is sometimes classified as contingency theory. Four contingency leadership theories appear more prominently in the recent years: Fiedler contingency model, Vroom-Yetton decision model, the path-goal theory, and the Hersey-Blanchard situational theory.
The Fiedler contingency model bases the leader’s effectiveness on what Fred Fiedler called situational contingency. This results from the interaction of leadership style and situational favorableness (later called "situational control"). The theory defined two types of leader: those who tend to accomplish the task by developing good-relationships with the group (relationship-oriented), and those who have as their prime concern carrying out the task itself (task-oriented).[14] According to Fiedler, there is no ideal leader. Both task-oriented and relationship-oriented leaders can be effective if their leadership orientation fits the situation. When there is a good leader-member relation, a highly structured task, and high leader position power, the situation is considered a "favorable situation". Fiedler found that task-oriented leaders are more effective in extremely favourable or unfavourable situations, whereas relationship-oriented leaders perform best in situations with intermediate favourability.
Victor Vroom, in collaboration with Phillip Yetton (1973)[15] and later with Arthur Jago (1988),[16] developed a taxonomy for describing leadership situations, taxonomy that was used in a normative decision model where leadership styles where connected to situational variables, defining which approach was more suitable to which situation.[17] This approach was novel because it supported the idea that the same manager could rely on different group decision making approaches depending on the attributes of each situation. This model was later referred as situational contingency theory.[18]
The path-goal theory of leadership was developed by Robert House (1971) and was based on the expectancy theory of Victor Vroom.[19] According to House, the essence of the theory is "the meta proposition that leaders, to be effective, engage in behaviors that complement subordinates' environments and abilities in a manner that compensates for deficiencies and is instrumental to subordinate satisfaction and individual and work unit performance.[20] The theory identifies four leader behaviors, achievement-oriented, directive, participative, and supportive, that are contingent to the environment factors and follower characteristics. In contrast to the Fiedler contingency model, the path-goal model states that the four leadership behaviors are fluid, and that leaders can adopt any of the four depending on what the situation demands. The path-goal model can be classified both as a contingency theory, as it depends on the circumstances, but also as a transactional leadership theory, as the theory emphasizes the reciprocity behavior between the leader and the followers.
The situational leadership model proposed by Hersey and Blanchard suggests four leadership-styles and four levels of follower-development. For effectiveness, the model posits that the leadership-style must match the appropriate level of followership-development. In this model, leadership behavior becomes a function not only of the characteristics of the leader, but of the characteristics of followers as well.[21]
[edit] Functional theory
Main article: Functional leadership model
Functional leadership theory (Hackman & Walton, 1986; McGrath, 1962) is a particularly useful theory for addressing specific leader behaviors expected to contribute to organizational or unit effectiveness. This theory argues that the leader’s main job is to see that whatever is necessary to group needs is taken care of; thus, a leader can be said to have done their job well when they have contributed to group effectiveness and cohesion (Fleishman et al., 1991; Hackman & Wageman, 2005; Hackman & Walton, 1986). While functional leadership theory has most often been applied to team leadership (Zaccaro, Rittman, & Marks, 2001), it has also been effectively applied to broader organizational leadership as well (Zaccaro, 2001). In summarizing literature on functional leadership (see Kozlowski et al. (1996), Zaccaro et al. (2001), Hackman and Walton (1986), Hackman & Wageman (2005), Morgeson (2005)), Klein, Zeigert, Knight, and Xiao (2006) observed five broad functions a leader perform when promoting organisation's effectiveness. These functions include: (1) environmental monitoring, (2) organizing subordinate activities, (3) teaching and coaching subordinates, (4) motivating others, and (5) intervening actively in the group’s work.
A variety of leadership behaviors are expected to facilitate these functions. In initial work identifying leader behavior, Fleishman (Fleishman, 1953) observed that subordinates perceived their supervisors’ behavior in terms of two broad categories referred to as consideration and initiating structure. Consideration includes behavior involved in fostering effective relationships. Examples of such behavior would include showing concern for a subordinate or acting in a supportive manner towards others. Initiating structure involves the actions of the leader focused specifically on task accomplishment. This could include role clarification, setting performance standards, and holding subordinates accountable to those standards.
[edit] Transactional and transformational theories
Main articles: Transactional leadership and Transformational leadership
The transactional leader (Burns, 1978)[22] is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the team’s performance. It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else. Power is given to the leader to evaluate, correct and train subordinates when productivity is not up to the desired level and reward effectiveness when expected outcome is reached.
The transformational leader (Burns, 2008)[22] motivates its team to be effective and efficient. Communication is the base for goal achievement focusing the group on the final desired outcome or goal attainment. This leader is highly visible and uses chain of command to get the job done. Transformational leaders focus on the big picture, needing to be surrounded by people who take care of the details. The leader is always looking for ideas that move the organization to reach the company’s vision.
[edit] Leadership and emotions
Leadership can be perceived as a particularly emotion-laden process, with emotions entwined with the social influence process[23]. In an organization, the leaders’ mood has some effects on his group. These effects can be described in 3 levels[24]:
1. The mood of individual group members. Group members with leaders in a positive mood experience more positive mood than do group members with leaders in a negative mood.The leaders transmit their moods to other group members through the mechanism of emotional contagion[24].Mood contagion may be one of the psychological mechanisms by which charismatic leaders influence followers[25].
2. The affective tone of the group. Group affective tone represents the consistent or homogeneous affective reactions within a group. Group affective tone is an aggregate of the moods of the individual members of the group and refers to mood at the group level of analysis. Groups with leaders in a positive mood have a more positive affective tone than do groups with leaders in a negative mood [24].
3. Group processes like coordination, effort expenditure, and task strategy.Public expressions of mood impact how group members think and act. When people experience and express mood, they send signals to others. Leaders signal their goals, intentions, and attitudes through their expressions of moods. For example, expressions of positive moods by leaders signal that leaders deem progress toward goals to be good.The group members respond to those signals cognitively and behaviorally in ways that are reflected in the group processes [24].
In research about client service it was found that expressions of positive mood by the leader improve the performance of the group, although in other sectors there were another findings[26].
Beyond the leader’s mood, his behavior is a source for employee positive and negative emotions at work. The leader creates situations and events that lead to emotional response. Certain leader behaviors displayed during interactions with their employees are the sources of these affective events. Leaders shape workplace affective events. Examples – feedback giving, allocating tasks, resource distribution. Since employee behavior and productivity are directly affected by their emotional states, it is imperative to consider employee emotional responses to organizational leaders[27]. Emotional intelligence, the ability to understand and manage moods and emotions in the self and others, contributes to effective leadership in organizations[26]. Leadership is about being responsible.
[edit] Leadership performance
Main article: Leadership Performance
In the past, some researchers have argued that the actual influence of leaders on organizational outcomes is overrated and romanticized as a result of biased attributions about leaders (Meindl & Ehrlich, 1987). Despite these assertions however, it is largely recognized and accepted by practitioners and researchers that leadership is important, and research supports the notion that leaders do contribute to key organizational outcomes (Day & Lord, 1988; Kaiser, Hogan, & Craig, 2008). In order to facilitate successful performance it is important to understand and accurately measure leadership performance.
Job performance generally refers to behavior that is expected to contribute to organizational success (Campbell, 1990). Campbell identified a number of specific types of performance dimensions; leadership was one of the dimensions that he identified. There is no consistent, overall definition of leadership performance (Yukl, 2006). Many distinct conceptualizations are often lumped together under the umbrella of leadership performance, including outcomes such as leader effectiveness, leader advancement, and leader emergence (Kaiser et al., 2008). For instance, leadership performance may be used to refer to the career success of the individual leader, performance of the group or organization, or even leader emergence. Each of these measures can be considered conceptually distinct. While these aspects may be related, they are different outcomes and their inclusion should depend on the applied/research focus.
[edit] Contexts of leadership
[edit] Leadership in organizations
An organization that is established as an instrument or means for achieving defined objectives has been referred to as a formal organization. Its design specifies how goals are subdivided and reflected in subdivisions of the organization. Divisions, departments, sections, positions, jobs, and tasks make up this work structure. Thus, the formal organization is expected to behave impersonally in regard to relationships with clients or with its members. According to Weber's definition, entry and subsequent advancement is by merit or seniority. Each employee receives a salary and enjoys a degree of tenure that safeguards him from the arbitrary influence of superiors or of powerful clients. The higher his position in the hierarchy, the greater his presumed expertise in adjudicating problems that may arise in the course of the work carried out at lower levels of the organization. It is this bureaucratic structure that forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position. [28]
In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit, a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure. The informal organization expresses the personal objectives and goals of the individual membership. Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization. The informal organization represents an extension of the social structures that generally characterize human life — the spontaneous emergence of groups and organizations as ends in themselves.
In prehistoric times, man was preoccupied with his personal security, maintenance, protection, and survival. Now man spends a major portion of his waking hours working for organizations. His need to identify with a community that provides security, protection, maintenance, and a feeling of belonging continues unchanged from prehistoric times. This need is met by the informal organization and its emergent, or unofficial, leaders.[29]
Leaders emerge from within the structure of the informal organization. Their personal qualities, the demands of the situation, or a combination of these and other factors attract followers who accept their leadership within one or several overlay structures. Instead of the authority of position held by an appointed head or chief, the emergent leader wields influence or power. Influence is the ability of a person to gain co-operation from others by means of persuasion or control over rewards. Power is a stronger form of influence because it reflects a person's ability to enforce action through the control of a means of punishment.[29]
A leader is a person who influences a group of people towards a specific result. It is not dependent on title or formal authority. (elevos, paraphrased from Leaders, Bennis, and Leadership Presence, Halpern & Lubar). Leaders are recognized by their capacity for caring for others, clear communication, and a commitment to persist. [30] An individual who is appointed to a managerial position has the right to command and enforce obedience by virtue of the authority of his position. However, he must possess adequate personal attributes to match his authority, because authority is only potentially available to him. In the absence of sufficient personal competence, a manager may be confronted by an emergent leader who can challenge his role in the organization and reduce it to that of a figurehead. However, only authority of position has the backing of formal sanctions. It follows that whoever wields personal influence and power can legitimize this only by gaining a formal position in the hierarchy, with commensurate authority.[29] Leadership can be defined as one's ability to get others to willingly follow. Every organization needs leaders at every level.[31]
[edit] Leadership versus management
Over the years the terms management and leadership have been so closely related that individuals in general think of them as synonymous. However, this is not the case even considering that good managers have leadership skills and vice-versa. With this concept in mind, leadership can be viewed as:
• centralized or decentralized
• broad or focused
• decision-oriented or morale-centred
• intrinsic or derived from some authority
Any of the bipolar labels traditionally ascribed to management style could also apply to leadership style. Hersey and Blanchard use this approach: they claim that management merely consists of leadership applied to business situations; or in other words management forms a subset of the broader leadership process. They say: "Leadership occurs any time one attempts to influence the behavior of an individual or group, regardless of the reason. Management is a kind of leadership in which the achievement of organizational goals is paramount." And according to Warren Bennis and Dan Goldsmith, A good manager does things right. A leader does the right things."[32]
However, a clear distinction between management and leadership may nevertheless prove useful. This would allow for a reciprocal relationship between leadership and management, implying that an effective manager should possess leadership skills, and an effective leader should demonstrate management skills. One clear distinction could provide the following definition:
• Management involves power by position.
• Leadership involves power by influence.
Abraham Zaleznik (1977), for example, delineated differences between leadership and management. He saw leaders as inspiring visionaries concerned about substance while managers he views as planners who have concerns with process. Warren Bennis (1989) further explicated a dichotomy between managers and leaders. He drew twelve distinctions between the two groups:
• Managers administer; leaders innovate.
• Managers ask how and when; leaders ask what and why.
• Managers focus on systems; leaders focus on people.
• Managers do things right; leaders do the right things.
• Managers maintain; leaders develop.
• Managers rely on control; leaders inspire trust.
• Managers have short-term perspective; leaders have long-term perspective.
• Managers accept the status-quo; leaders challenge the status-quo.
• Managers have an eye on the bottom line; leaders have an eye on the horizon.
• Managers imitate; leaders originate.
• Managers emulate the classic good soldier; leaders are their own person.
• Managers copy; leaders show originality.
Paul Birch (1999) also sees a distinction between leadership and management. He observed that, as a broad generalization, managers concerned themselves with tasks while leaders concerned themselves with people. Birch does not suggest that leaders do not focus on "the task." Indeed, the things that characterise a great leader include the fact that they achieve. Effective leaders create and sustain competitive advantage through the attainment of cost leadership, revenue leadership, time leadership, and market value leadership. Managers typically follow and realize a leader's vision. The difference lies in the leader realising that the achievement of the task comes about through the goodwill and support of others (influence), while the manager may not.
This goodwill and support originates in the leader seeing people as people, not as another resource for deployment in support of "the task". The manager often has the role of organizing resources to get something done. People form one of these resources, and many of the worst managers treat people as just another interchangeable item. A leader has the role of causing others to follow a path he/she has laid out or a vision he/she has articulated in order to achieve a task. Often, people see the task as subordinate to the vision. For instance, an organization might have the overall task of generating profit, but a good leader may see profit as a by-product that flows from whatever aspect of their vision differentiates their company from the competition.
Leadership does not only manifest itself as purely a business phenomenon. Many people can think of an inspiring leader they have encountered who has nothing whatever to do with business: a politician, an officer in the armed forces, a Scout or Guide leader, a teacher, etc. Similarly, management does not occur only as a purely business phenomenon. Again, we can think of examples of people that we have met who fill the management niche in non-business organisationsNon-business organizations should find it easier to articulate a non-money-driven inspiring vision that will support true leadership. However, often this does not occur.
Patricia Pitcher (1994) has challenged the bifurcation into leaders and managers. She used a factor analysis (in marketing) technique on data collected over 8 years, and concluded that three types of leaders exist, each with very different psychological profiles: Artists (imaginative, inspiring, visionary, entrepreneurial, intuitive, daring, and emotional), Craftsmen (well-balanced, steady, reasonable, sensible, predictable, and trustworthy), Technocrats (cerebral, detail-oriented, fastidious, uncompromising, and hard-headed). She speculates that no one profile offers a preferred leadership style. She claims that if we want to build, we should find an "artist leader" if we want to solidify our position, we should find a "craftsman leader" and if we have an ugly job that needs to get done like downsizing, we should find a "technocratic leader". Pitcher also observed that a balanced leader exhibiting all three sets of traits occurs extremely rarely: she found none in her study.
Bruce Lynn postulates a differentiation between 'Leadership' and ‘Management’ based on perspectives to risk. Specifically,"A Leader optimises upside opportunity; a Manager minimises downside risk." He argues that successful executives need to apply both disciplines in a balance appropriate to the enterprise and its context. Leadership without Management yields steps forward, but as many if not more steps backwards. Management without Leadership avoids any step backwards, but doesn’t move forward.
Leadership Styles Overview
When developing your leadership skills, one must soon confront an important practical question, "What leadership styles work best for me and my organization?" To answer this question, it's best to understand that there are many from which to choose and as part of your leadership development effort, you should consider developing as many leadership styles as possible.
Three Classic Leadership Styles
One dimension of has to do with control and one's perception of how much control one should give to people. The laissez faire style implies low control, the autocratic style high control and the participative lies somewhere in between.
The Laissez Faire Leadership Style
The style is largely a "hands off" view that tends to minimize the amount of direction and face time required. Works well if you have highly trained and highly motivated direct reports.
The Autocratic Leadership Style
The style has its advocates, but it is falling out of favor in many countries. Some people have argued that the style is popular with today's CEO's, who have much in common with feudal lords in Medieval Europe.
The Participative Leadership Style
It's hard to order and demand someone to be creative, perform as a team, solve complex problems, improve quality, and provide outstanding customer service. The style presents a happy medium between over controlling (micromanaging) and not being engaged and tends to be seen in organizations that must innovate to prosper.
Determining the Best Leadership Style
Situational Leadership. In the 1950s, management theorists from Ohio State University and the University of Michigan published a series of studies to determine whether leaders should be more task or relationship (people) oriented. The importance of the research cannot be over estimated since leaders tend to have a dominant style; a leadership style they use in a wide variety of situations.
Surprisingly, the research discovered that there is no one best style: leaders must adjust their leadership style to the situation as well as to the people being led.
The Emergent Leadership Style
Contrary to the belief of many, groups do not automatically accept a new "boss" as leader. We see a number of ineffective managers who didn't know the behaviors to use when one taking over a new group.
The Transactional Leadership Style
The approach emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo; almost in opposition to the goals of the transformational leadership. It's considered to be a "by the book" approach in which the person works within the rules. As such, it's commonly seen in large, bureaucratic organizations.
The Transformational Leadership Style
The primary focus of this leadership style is to make change happen in:
• Our Self,
• Others,
• Groups, and
• Organizations
Charisma is a special leadership style commonly associated with transformational leadership. While extremely powerful, it is extremely hard to teach.
Visionary Leadership, The leadership style focuses on how the leader defines the future for followers and moves them toward it.
From the short review above, one can see that there are many different aspects to being a great leader; a role requiring one to play many different leadership styles to be successful.
Transformational Leadership Principles
Presenter: Murray Johannsen
________________________________________
Other leadership styles include:
Strategic Leadership is practiced by the military services such as the US Army, US Air Force, and many large corporations. It stresses the competitive nature of running an organization and being able to out fox and out wit the competition.
Team Leadership. A few years ago, a large corporation decided that supervisors were no longer needed and those in charge were suddenly made "team leaders." Today, companies have gotten smarter about teams, but it still takes leadership to transition a group into a team.
Facilitative Leadership. This is a special style that anyone who runs a meeting can employ. Rather than being directive, one uses a number of indirect communication patterns to help the group reach consensus.
Leadership Influence Styles. Here one looks at the behaviors associated how one exercises influence. For example, does the person mostly punish? Do they know how to reward?
Cross-Cultural Leadership. Not all individuals can adapt to the leadership styles expected in a different culture; whether that culture is organizational or national.
Coaching. A great coach is definitely a leader who also possess a unique gift--the ability to teach and train.
Level 5 Leadership. This term was coined by Jim Collins in his book Good to Great: Why Some Company’s Make the Leap and Other Don’t. As Collins says in his book, "We were surprised, shocked really, to discover the types of leadership required for turning a good company into a great one."
Servant Leadership. Some leaders have put the needs of their followers first. For example, the motto of the Los Angeles Police Department, "To Protect and Serve." reflects this philosophy of service. One
Seven Qualities of a Good Leader
By Barbara White
How often have you heard the comment, “He or she is a born leader?” There are certain characteristics found in some people that seem to naturally put them in a position where they’re looked up to as a leader.
Whether in fact a person is born a leader or develops skills and abilities to become a leader is open for debate. There are some clear characteristics that are found in good leaders. These qualities can be developed or may be naturally part of their personality. Let us explore them further.
Seven Personal Qualities Found In A Good Leader:
1. A good leader has an exemplary character. It is of utmost importance that a leader is trustworthy to lead others. A leader needs to be trusted and be known to live their life with honestly and integrity. A good leader “walks the talk” and in doing so earns the right to have responsibility for others. True authority is born from respect for the good character and trustworthiness of the person who leads.
2. A good leader is enthusiastic about their work or cause and also about their role as leader. People will respond more openly to a person of passion and dedication. Leaders need to be able to be a source of inspiration, and be a motivator towards the required action or cause. Although the responsibilities and roles of a leader may be different, the leader needs to be seen to be part of the team working towards the goal. This kind of leader will not be afraid to roll up their sleeves and get dirty.
3. A good leader is confident. In order to lead and set direction a leader needs to appear confident as a person and in the leadership role. Such a person inspires confidence in others and draws out the trust and best efforts of the team to complete the task well. A leader who conveys confidence towards the proposed objective inspires the best effort from team members.
4. A leader also needs to function in an orderly and purposeful manner in situations of uncertainty. People look to the leader during times of uncertainty and unfamiliarity and find reassurance and security when the leader portrays confidence and a positive demeanor.
5. Good leaders are tolerant of ambiguity and remain calm, composed and steadfast to the main purpose. Storms, emotions, and crises come and go and a good leader takes these as part of the journey and keeps a cool head.
6. A good leader as well as keeping the main goal in focus is able to think analytically. Not only does a good leader view a situation as a whole, but is able to break it down into sub parts for closer inspection. Not only is the goal in view but a good leader can break it down into manageable steps and make progress towards it.
7. A good leader is committed to excellence. Second best does not lead to success. The good leader not only maintains high standards, but also is proactive in raising the bar in order to achieve excellence in all areas.
These seven personal characteristics are foundational to good leadership. Some characteristics may be more naturally present in the personality of a leader. However, each of these characteristics can also be developed and strengthened. A good leader whether they naturally possess these qualities or not, will be diligent to consistently develop and strengthen them in their leadership role.
suspects these leaders are rare in business.
THE CHARACTERISTICS *
- OF A GOOD LEADER! -
• Challenges me to do my best.
________________________________________
• Sets a good example.
________________________________________
• Explains the reasons
for instructions & procedures.
________________________________________
• Helps me polish my thoughts
before I present them to others.
________________________________________
• Is objective about things.
________________________________________
• Lets me make my own decisions.
________________________________________
• Cares about me & how I'm doing.
________________________________________
• Does not seek the limelight.
________________________________________
• Won't let me give up.
________________________________________
• Gives personal guidance & direction,
especially when I'm learning something new.
________________________________________
• Is empathetic & understanding.
________________________________________
• Is firm but fair.
________________________________________
• Keeps a results orientation.
________________________________________
• Makes me work out
most of my own problems or tough situations,
but supports me.
________________________________________
• Lets me know where I stand.
________________________________________
• Listens exceptionally well.
________________________________________
• Doesn't put words in my mouth.
________________________________________
• Is easy to talk with.
________________________________________
• Keeps the promises s/he makes.
________________________________________
• Keeps me focused on the goals ahead.
________________________________________
• Works as hard or harder than anyone else.
________________________________________
• Is humble.
________________________________________
• Is proud of those managers s/he has developed.
________________________________________
• Gives credit where credit is due.
________________________________________
• Never says "I told you so."
________________________________________
• Corrects my performance in private.
________________________________________
• Never flaunts authority.
________________________________________
• Is always straight-forward.
________________________________________
• Gives at least a second chance.
________________________________________
• Maintains an open door policy.
________________________________________
• Uses language that is easy to understand.
________________________________________
• Lets bygones be bygones.
________________________________________
• Inspires loyalty.
________________________________________
• Really wants to hear my ideas
& acts on them.
________________________________________
• Lets me set my own deadlines.
________________________________________
• Celebrates successes.
________________________________________
• Is open & honest.
________________________________________
• Doesn't hide bad news.
________________________________________
• Gives me enough time
to prepare for discussion.
________________________________________
• Is enthusiastic.
________________________________________
• Follows through.
________________________________________
• Is patient.
________________________________________
• Wants me to "stretch" my skills.
________________________________________
• Gives me his/her full attention
during discussions,
& won't be distracted.
________________________________________
• Has a sense of humor.
________________________________________
• Handles disagreements privately.
________________________________________
• Reassures me.
________________________________________
• Makes me feel confident.
________________________________________
• Tells me the "whole story."
________________________________________
• Says "we" instead of "I".
________________________________________
• Makes hard work worth it.
________________________________________
• Can communicate annoyance
without running wild.
________________________________________
• Is courageous.
________________________________________
• Insists on training.
________________________________________
• Is a stabilizing influence in a crisis.
________________________________________
• Gets everyone involved.
________________________________________
• Wants me to be successful.
________________________________________
• Is optimistic.
________________________________________
• Operates well under pressure,
or in a rapidly changing environment.
________________________________________
• Has a reputation for competence
with his/her own peers.
________________________________________
• Has a good understanding of the job.
________________________________________
• Is tough & tender.
________________________________________
• Believes we can do it.
________________________________________
• Sets attainable milestones.
________________________________________
• Communicates philosophy & values.
________________________________________
• Is perceptive;
doesn't believe that everything
needs to be spelled out.
________________________________________
• Has a strong sense of urgency.
________________________________________
• Preserves the individuality
of his/her team members.
________________________________________
• Thinks & operates at a level
above that expected.
________________________________________
• Wants to make the organization
the best in the industry.
________________________________________
• Is willing to act on intuition;
believes feelings are facts.
________________________________________
• Empowers us.
________________________________________
• Is there when we need her/him.
________________________________________
• Enjoys his/her job.
________________________________________
• Likes to spend time with us.
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